
(fess 



Book 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES AND 8 PARTS 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 

TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 
Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 
Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN and INSPECTOR. 



To WHICH ARE Added Appendixes Giving 

EXAMINATION PAPERS, ETC. 

In the Civil Service of the Federal Government 
(including Panama Canal and United States Navy), 
New York State, Boston, New Orleans, Etc. 



BY 

Myron H. Lewis, C. E., 

Member of the Municipal Engineers of the City of New York; Assistant Engineer, Topo- 
graphical Bureau, Borough of Queens, New York City, 

AND 

Milton Kempner, A. B., C. E., 

Member of the Mimicipal Engineers of the City of New York; Assistant Engineer, Rapid 
Transit Commission of the City of New York. 



NEW YORK 

The Engineering News Publishing Co. 

1906 



LIBBARY of congress! 
Two Cooie? Received I 

mn 12 1907 

Copyriehl Entry 

OL'^SS Cu XXc, No. 

COPY B. 



. L4 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engineering News Publishing Company 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Introductory. — Civil Service Eules, etc. 

VOLUME I. 
Part 1. Axeman. 

Part 2. Chainman and Podman. 

Part 3. Leveler. 

Part 4. Transitman and Computer. 

Appendix to Vol. I. Some Useful Formulas for Surveyors^ 

VOLUME IL 

Part 1. Assistant Engineer. — Papid Transit Commission. 

Part 2. Assistant Engineer. — General, Aqueduct, Docks, Sewers and 

Highways. 
Appendix to Vol. II. Some L^seful Engineering Formulas. 

VOLUME III. 

Part 1. Draftsman and Draftsman's Helper. 

Part 2. Inspector. — Buildings; Masonry and Carpentry; Steel; Keg- 
ulating. Grading and Paving; Sewers. 

GENEKAL APPENDIXES. 

General Appendix I. Civil Service of the United States, General 
Information and Previous Examination Papers. 

General Appendix II. Civil Service of the State of New York; 
Cities of Buffalo, Boston, New Orleans, etc. 



PUBLISHEKS' NOTE. 

When announcement was made that these volumes were in prep- 
aration, inquiries and orders poured in very rapidly. In order to 
make the various parts available for the forthcoming examinations, 
the preparation of the manuscript, and the composition and press- 
work had to be completed with all possible haste, which accounts 
for the various typographical errors that have crept in, particularly 
in the case of Vol. II, Part 2. A sheet of errata has been prepared, 
and the publishers, as well as the authors, would thank the readers 
for calling attention to any other errors that may be discovered, 
which will be corrected in the next edition. 



PKEFACE. 

"Civil Service" has had such a marked development during the 
past decade that it has come to be recognized as one of the important 
institutions in our civic life. In the Federal Service, as well as in 
that of many States and municipalities, thousands of positions 
which for years were under political control are now filled on the 
basis of merit and fitness as ascertained by competitive exami- 
nations. 

Especially is this true in positions requiring knowledge of a 
technical character, and, in the City of New York alone, over two 
thousand persons hold civil engineering positions, the majority of 
which have been filled through the medium of competitive exami- 
nations. The widespread interest in these examinations has brought 
to editors of technical journals numerous inquiries concerning their 
scope, character, frequency, etc., requests for sample questions and 
for suitable books of reference. Considerable difficulty was expe- 
rienced in answering many of these queries and in making recom- 
mendations, for, while excellent text-books were to be had, no single 
work was available containing the desired information. 

The present book aims in a measure to fill the want that has 
been so long apparent. 

Some difficulty was experienced in its preparation. To cover 
the whole field of Civil Engineering was -impracticable, and another 
text-book would not materially aid the candidate. The authors 
therefore decided at the outset that the most appropriate informa- 
tion to include in a work of this character would be: 

1st, Previous Examination Papers — giving as many sets as were 
readily available. 

2nd, Typical Questions and Answers — such answers to be brief 
and to the point, and, while giving the information asked for, to 
avoid text -book discussion; in short, to indicate what may be ex- 
pected of candidates in the examination room. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" the questions may not, 
in all cases, be identical in wording with those actually given at 
the examinations, as copies of the original papers were not readily 
procurable, but they embody the substance of the questions asked. 

The "Typical Questions and Answers" are not intended to be 
perfect or complete, as reasonable variance of opinion may exist as 



VI PREFACE. 

to what is the best answer in many cases, owing to differences in 
interpretation of the question and in the education and experience 
of the candidate. In several instances, where questions on a given 
topic were few in number, the answers were intentionally enlarged 
upon. 

Examinations are not always the best tests of merit and fitness, 
and they are never conclusive; but they must be employed for want 
of better means. Incompetent men occasionally succeed while 
others fail, such failure usually arising from lack of preparation, 
or inability to put on paper the requisite information in a given 
time. To the latter, the authors hope this book will prove useful, 
and also serve as a review and guide to engineers seeking to enter 
government employ. It is also hoped that the extensive collection 
of examination papers will prove useful to Civil Service Exami- 
ners in preparing new papers, and to instructors and students in 
engineering schools, for the purpose of quizzes and reviews, espe- 
cially now that the introduction of Civil Service in the curriculum 
of such schools is being advocated. 

As a matter of convenience, the book has been divided into 
eight parts, each complete in itself, the division being based upon 
the classification obtaining in New York City. As similar ques- 
tions occasionally appear in the examination papers for different 
positions, it has been deemed advisable to repeat the answers, with 
due regard, however, to the requirements of the position. The parts 
were issued separately, and not in regular sequence, to render them 
available for the forthcoming examinations. For this reason the 
paging in the volumes is not consecutive. It is intended to remedy 
this in future editions. 

Appendixes have been added to the first and second volumes, 
containing the formulas which appear in the text and some of the 
more common formulas with which the candidate should be familiar. 

For those desiring information concerning examinations out- 
side of New York City, an extensive appendix has been added, giv- 
ing the Rules and Examination Papers for the United States Navy, 
Panama Canal and other Federal positions, the New York State 
Service, Boston, Buffalo and New Orleans, etc. 

The work complete contains over one hundred sets of "Previous 
Examination Papers," comprising over two thousand questions and 
answers to about a thousand typical questions. Interleaving has 



PREFACE. Vn 

been introduced for the convenient addition of new sets and to 
provide space for notes, sketches, etc. 

It may not be amiss here to say that the Civil Service of Hew 
York offers a broad and attractive field for engineers. The many 
public improvements under way and projected have necessitated the 
employment of a large number of technical men. Most of the can- 
didates who pass the examinations receive appointment at fair sal- 
aries, and the opportunities for promotion and advancement are 
quite good. 

Extracts from the rules and regulations governing the service 
in New York City and other pertinent data appear in the intro- 
duction. 

The Authors are indebted to Mr. M. Feldman of the Department 
of Bridges for valuable assistance in the preparation of Volume 
III; to Mr. G. Harwood Frost, manager publication department. 
Engineering News, for advice and suggestions ; to the Keuffel & 
Esser Co. of New York for the loan of many cuts. 

Thanks are also due to those who kindly furnished copies of 
examination papers. 

M. H. L. 
M. K. 

New York, October 1, 1906. 



INTEODUCTOKY. 

The Civil Engineer Service of the City of New York forms one 
of the most important arms of its municipal organization, having 
under its direction the prosecution of public works involving a large 
part of the annual expenditures. This service embraces nearly 2 500 
employees, most of whom, as stated in the preface, obtained their 
original appointment through competitive examinations. Positions 
in the lowest grades are filled by original appointment of successful 
candidates, and those in the higher by promotion, where possible. 
Owing to the lack of sufficient eligibles to meet the demands of the 
service, many examinations have been held during the past five 
years for the higher grades, and most of the successful candidates 
have received appointment. Applications for examinations are 
only received at stated times and on prescribed blanks, which may 
be obtained by addressing the Municipal Civil Service Commission, 
299 Broadway, New York. The following table gives an idea of the 
classification, distribution and compensation of the Civil Engineer- 
ing Employees. Extracts from the rules of the Commission follow 
the table, giving the pertinent information relative to Appointment, 
Promotion, Transfer, etc. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



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INTRODUCTORY. XI 

EXTRACTS FROM THE RULES OF THE MUNICIPAL 

CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION OF THE 

QTY OF NEW YORK. 



KULE VIII— FILING OF APPLICATIONS. 

1. Applications for examination for positions in the Competitive 
Class shall be addressed to the Commission on a prescribed form, 
in the handwriting of the applicant, and accompanied by such 
certificates or other evidences as to citizenship, character, condition 
of health, education, previous employment, training and fitness as 
the Commission may require. 

The statements of the applicant in these particulars shall be 
made under oath, properly attested. 

2. Every application shall bear the certificate of four reputable 
citizens, whose residences or places of business are within the City 
of New York, to the effect that they have personally known the 
applicant for not less than one year, that they have read his state- 
ments and believe them to be correct, and that they will, upon 
request, give such further facts concerning him as they may 
possess, either for the files of the Commission or for the information 
of appointing officers. 

If the previous occupation or employment of the applicant has 
been wholly or in part outside the City of New York, not more 
than two of the said certificates may be accepted, in the discretion 
of the Commission, from persons resident or engaged in business 
elsewhere ; but no such certificate shall be accepted from a near rela- 
tive of the applicant, or from any person the character of whose 
business, in the judgment of the Commission, laaj disqualify him 
as a fit voucher. 

3. The Commission shall, by regulation or otherwise, fix the 
limits of time between which applications for a given examination 
shall be presented; but such period shall in no case be less than two 
weeks, and there shall be not less than five days between the last 
date for the presentation of applications and the date of examina- 
tion. 

4. An application presented within the prescribed limits of time, 
but found to be defective, shall be suspended, and notification shall 
be given to the applicant of the particulars in which it requires 
correction. Such an application shall be accepted if corrected and 
returned before the date of examination, but not otherwise. 

5. Applications when presented shall be dated, numbered, and 
recorded in the order of their receipt. An application that has been 
accepted and filed shall not be returned for any reason to the appli- 
cant. 



Xn - INTRODUCTORY. 

6. A person claiming rights of preference as a veteran shall file, 
with his application, proof of such veteranship and of his residence 
within the State of New York. 

7. Application forms shall be furnished to intending applicants, 
upon personal or written request, at the office of the Commission, 
and shall be procurable there only. 

KULE IX— MAEKING AND EATING. 

1. The examination papers shall be rated, in each case, by at 
least two examiners assigned therefor, who shall review them sepa- 
rately, and after such rating is completed shall affix to each a mark 
expressing the average of their judgment, attested by their respec- 
tive signatures or initials. The marking shall be strictly compara- 
tive and according to such standards of proficiency as the needs of 
the service may require. Each subject shall be marked upon a 
scale of 100, which shall represent the maximum possible attain- 
ment. 

2. Every candidate who receives a general average marking of 
not less than 70 per cent., and who has received not less than 20 
per cent, in any required subject, or not less than 75 per cent, in 
any technical subject, when the examination is for a position of 
scientific, professional or technical nature, shall be eligible for cer- 
tification and appointment in the manner, and under the conditions, 
hereinafter prescribed. 

3. Where the Chief Examiner is satisfied, through investigation 
made under his direction, or otherwise, that the general character 
or the reputation of a candidate whose papers have been marked is 
not good, the name of such candidate shall not be placed on any 
eligible list; but all action under this clause shall be reported in 
writing, with the reasons therefor, to the Commission and shall be 
subject to the Commission's approval. The burden of proof of good 
character shall be upon the candidate who may, where doubt exists, 
be required to furnish evidence thereof additional to the certificates 
required at the time of his application. 

4. The Secretary shall, as early as practicable after the comple- 
tion of an examination, notify each candidate of the rating he has 
received, and of his relative standing, if such rating be above the 
minimum. He shall in the same manner notify any candidate who 
may be rejected for reasons other than failure to receive the mini- 
mum average, stating such reasons specifically. 

5. A candidate receiving such notice may personally inspect his 
examination papers, in the presence of a designated officer or 
employee of the Commission, and, if he believes that any error or 
mistake in marking appears, or that injustice has otherwise been 
done him, may, not later than fifteen days after the date of such 
notice, file an appeal with the Commission, specifying particularly 



INTRODUCTORY. XIH 

the grounds of his complaint. The Commission shall take such 
action with reference to such appeal as substantial justice may- 
require. 

KULE X— ELIGIBLE LISTS. 

1. The results of each examination shall be reported by the Chief 
Examiner to the Secretary, who shall enter the names of the persons 
passing, in the order of their average rating, on the proper list of 
eligibles; provided that the names of veterans so passing shall be 
entered, in the order of average rating, at the head of such list. The 
date of the establishment of a list shall be the date of such report. 

2. When two or more eligibles on a list have the same average 
rating, preference in certification shall be determined by the order 
in which their applications were filed, or, if the examination be for 
promotion, by the order of their original appointment in the depart- 
ment or other division of the service in which the promotion occurs. 

3. The term of an eligible list shall be not less than one year nor 
more than four years from the date of its establishment. An eligible 
list that has been in force for one year, except for the position of 
temporary clerk, shall terminate whenever a new list is established 
under the same title, and, in case of a graded position, for the same 
grade or grades. 

Persons whose names appear on a list about to be terminated 
shall be notified of the new examination, in the same manner that 
applicants therefor are notified, and shall be informed that, upon 
the establishment of the new list, their original eligibility shall 
cease. 

4. All eligible lists shall be published as early as may be prac- 
ticable after their establishment, in the "City Record." 

RULE XI— CERTIFICATION AND APPOINTMENT. 

1. Selections for appointment to all positions in the Competitive 
Class not filled by promotion, reduction, transfer or reinstatement 
shall, except as provided in Rule XII, be made in the following 
manner : 

The appointing ofiicer shall notify the Commission of the title 
of the position, the duties to be performed and the compensation to 
be paid. The Commission shall thereupon certify to such appoint- 
ing ofiicer from the eligible list most nearly appropriate to such 
position, and for the grade thereof, if in a graded service, the three 
names at the head thereof; provided that, except in the case of a 
veteran, no such name shall be certified more than three times to 
the same appointing officer for the same or a similar position, unless 
at such officer's request. The relative rating of each candidate 
shall be stated in the certification, and, if the appointing officer re- 
quests, the application and examination papers of each shall be 



jXIV mTRODUCTORY. 

submitted for his inspection, at the office of the Commission. Cer- 
tification shall be made without regard to sex unless sex is specified 
in the requisition. 

The appointing , officer shall make selection, with reference 
solely to merit and fitness, from the three names certified, unless 
objection shall be made, and sustained by the Commission, to one 
or more of the persons named, in which case the certification of 
three names shall be completed by addition of the name or names 
next following upon the eligible list. If there be more than one 
vacancy to be filled, names shall be certified and selection shall be 
made for each of such vacancies in the same manner. 

2. The person selected shall be duly notified by the appointing 
officer, and, upon accepting and reporting for duty, shall receive 
from such officer a certificate of appointment for a probationary 
period of three months; except in the Police or the Fire Service, 
where such period shall be one month. If his conduct or capacity 
en probation be unsatisfactory to the appointing officer the proba- 
tioner shall be notified in writing that at the end of such period he 
shall, for that reason, not be retained; his retention in the service 
otherwise shall be equivalent to permanent appointment. 

3. A probationer separated from the service for any reason other 
than fault or delinquency shall be restored to the eligible list from 
which he was selected, with the same relative standing, and the 
time during which he has actually served shall be deducted from 
the period of probation if he be again selected by the same appoint- 
ing officer. When two or more persons selected from the same 
eligible list are serving as probationers under the same appointing 
officer, and a reduction of force is necessary, they shall be preferred 
for retention in the order of their original standing on such list. 

4. The name of any person certified as eligible for a probationary 
appointment who shall decline such appointment shall be stricken 
from the list from which such certification is made, unless such 
declination be for one of the following reasons : , 

(a) Residence in a borough other than that in which the duties 
are to be performed; (h) insufficiency of the compensation offered, 
if such compensation be lower than the amount or the maximum 
amount stated in the announcement of examination; or (c) tempo- 
rary inability, physical or otherwise, the evidences of which must 
be acceptable to and approved by the Commission and set forth in 
its minutes. 

The failure of an eligible person to respond within four days to 
an offer of appointment sent to his post-office address shall be con- 
sidered a declination. 

An eligible who has declined appointment by reason of the 
insufficiency of the compensation offered shall not be again certified 
for a position at the same or any less compensation, and whenever 



INTRODUCTORY. X\^ 

one or more eligibles shall have declined appointment to any posi- 
tion for such reason, and an eligible whose standing is lower is 
appointed thereto, the compensation of such appointee shall not be 
increased within one year thereafter beyond the amount offered to 
any person so declining. 

On notification from an appointing officer that a person named 
in a certification has declined appointment, and on receipt from 
such officer of such declination in writing, or of evidence of the 
failure of such person to respond to a notice properly sent, such 
certification shall be completed by addition of the name of the elig- 
ible next in order. 

5, ISTo certification shall remain in force for a longer period than 
fifteen days. Until such certification has been exhausted or termi- 
nated no new certification shall be made for the same position, but 
the names of the persons certified may be certified for any similar 
position. 

6. Every person selected for appointment shall be required to 
fill out and sign, in the presence of the appointing officer or his 
representative, an identification sheet, repeating the essential facts 
stated by him at the time of examination, which shall be forwarded 
to the Commission with the notice of appointment and filed with 
the appointee's application papers. 

If a person who is not entitled to certification is certified and 
^ippointed, his appointment, upon due notification from the Com- 
mission to the appointing officer, shall be revoked. 



EULE XIII— SUSPENSION AND EEINSTATEMENT. 

1. Whenever any permanent position in the Competitive Class 
is abolished or made unnecessary, or whenever the number of posi- 
tions of a certain character is reduced, the person or persons legally 
holding such positions shall be deemed to be suspended without 
pay, and the names of such persons shall, on due notification from 
the appointing officer, be placed by the Commission on a special 
list, under such classified title and corresponding to such competi- 
tive eligible list as, in the judgment of the Commission, most nearly 
cover the class of duties performed by such persons in the position 
from which suspension is made. Eor a period of one year from the 
date of suspension such persons shall be entitled to reinstatement in 
any position, or any grade of such position, for which certification 
from such corresponding eligible list might be made, and the Secre- 
tary shall certify their names to the proper appointing officer as 
entitled to such reinstatement, in the order of the dates of their 
original appointment to the Classified Service, before certification 
is made from such corresponding eligible list for any such vacancy; 
provided that such persons shall be selected for certification, first, 



XVI INTRODUCTORY. 

for a position the same as that from which suspension was made, if 
the vacancy exists in such a position, and second, for corresponding^ 
or similar positions. 

A person so certified who declines to accept a reinstatement,, 
except for one of the reasons and under the conditions stated in sub- 
division 4 of Rule XI, shall be considered to be permanently sepa- 
rated from the service. 

2. The provisions of the foregoing clause shall not apply to any 
person who resigns his position or who is suspended or removed, 
therefrom for any reason other than those therein specified. Leaves 
of absence without pay may be granted by an appointing officer,, 
without conflict with such provisions, where such absence does not 
exceed thirty days, or in case of sickness six months; but the Com- 
mission, in exceptional cases, the circumstances of which shall be 
stated in its minutes and in its annual report, may extend such, 
periods. Absence without leave for a period of five days, unless it 
be subsequently shown that such absence was unavoidable, shall be 
construed as a resignation. 

3. A person who has resigned from a permanent competitive 
position, or who has been removed or otherwise separated therefrom 
from any cause other than fault or delinquency on his part, may be 
reinstated without examination, at any time within one year from 
the date of such separation, in a vacant position in the same class 
and grade, provided that for original entrance to such position there 
is not required by these rules, in the judgment of the Commission, 
an examination involving tests or qualifications different from or 
higher than those involved in the examination for appointment to 
the position formerly held by such person. But no person shall be 
so reinstated who at any time within a year prior to the date of his 
separation from the service had been eligible for reinstatement as 
a suspended employee. 

The Commission may in its discretion extend the period during 
which reinstatement may be made under this clause where the 
I)erson seeking reinstatement resigned his position in order to serve 
in the Army or Navy of the United States in time of war, and has- 
received an honorable discharge therefrom. 

RULE XIV— TRANSFER. . ^ 

1. A person who has been permanently appointed to a position 
in the Competitive Class may be transferred without examination 
to a similar position in such class, or to a position of the same grade 
thereof, if it be in a graded service, in any other department, office 
or institution; provided that for original entrance to the position 
proposed to be filled by transfer there is not required by these rules,, 
in the judgment of the Commission, an examination involving tests 
or qualifications essentially different from or higher than those- 



IXTEODrCTORY. XYII 

required in an examination for original entrance to the position 
from which transfer is sought; or provided he shall have passed the 
examination or obtained a place upon the eligible list in force for 
such position; and provided further that if such person entered the 
service without competitive examination, and prior to the require- 
ment thereof in the case of the position held by him, he shall have 
served with fidelity for at least three years in such position, or in 
a similar position. 

2. A person may be transferred from a position in one class to 
a position in another class, or from a position in any grade of the 
Competitive Class to a different grade in such class, who has served 
a year in the position from which transfer is sought, under special 
authority granted by the Commission, for reasons to be stated in its 
annual report, and subject to the provisions of Clause 1 of this 
rule. 

3. A person who, by transfer or promotion from a competitive 
position, is holding a position in another class or in another grade, 
and who has served continuously therein from the date of such 
transfer or promotion, may be retransferred, without the application 
of the foregoing restrictions, either to the position originally held 
by him, or to any position to which transfer could be made there- 
from. 

4. Upon the written request of an appointing officer, stating the 
facts with reference to a proposed transfer, accompanied by the 
consent, also in writing, of the appointing officer from whose juris- 
diction the transfer is to be made, the Commission will, if such 
transfer be in accordance with law and the provisions of these rules, 
issue its certificate to that effect ; but no such transfer shall be made 
or recognized until after the issuance of such certificate. 



KULE XV— PEOMOTIO^. 

1. Vacancies in positions above the lowest grade in any Part of 
the Competitive Class, except Part I, that are not filled by original 
appointment, transfer, reinstatement or reduction, shall be filled 
by promotion, based, so far as practicable, on competitive tests. 

2. Examinations for promotion shall be ordered as often as may 
be necessary to meet or to anticipate the needs of the higher grades, 
and, so far as practicable, shall be held periodically. Except where 
otherwise provided by law, such examinations shall be open, in each 
case, to all persons who shall have served with fidelity for not less 
than six months in positions of the same group or general character 
in the grade next lower, in the same department, office or institu- 
tion; except that, for reasons to be set forth in its minutes, and 
where permitted by law, the Commission may open such examina- 
tion to persons in two or more lower grades who shall have served 



XVTTI INTHODUCTORY . 

with fidelity for not less than six months in the periods held by 
them respectively. 

ISTotice of such examination shall be given by the Secretary to 
all eligible persons in the grade or grades from which promotion 
is to be made at least one week in advance of the date thereof. 

3. A position in any of the aforesaid Parts the compensation 
of which is not identical with that specified in the Classification 
for any grade of snch Part shall, for purposes of promotion, be 
deemed as of the grade the compensation of which is specified as 
next lower than the compensation paid. 

6. The subjects of rating and the relative w^eights thereof, in any 
competitive promotion examination, shall be as follows: For senior- 
ity of service in the position or grade from which promotion is 
sought, 20; for comparative conduct and efficiency in previous ser- 
vice in such position or grade, 40; and for written papers on 
pertinent subjects, 40; provided, that in rating for seniority, where 
more than one grade is opened, such rating shall be based upon the 
service of a candidate in all of such grades; and provided further 
that the maximum term of service in a position or grade to be con- 
sidered in rating for seniority shall be fifteen years. 

KULE XVI— KEMOVALS. 

1. No person holding a position in the service of the city shall 
be removed from such position, except in the manner prescribed 
by the Charter and the Civil Service Law; and the officer charged 
w^ith the power of removal, in each case, shall transmit to the Com- 
mission, with the report of his action required under Rule XX, a 
copy of the reasons therefor, or of the findings of any trial board 
or officer, as stated to the person removed, and as filed in the de- 
partment or office. 

2. No person who is an honorably discharged soldier, sailor or 
marine, having served as such in the Union Army or Navy during 
the War of the Rebellion, or in the volunteer army or navy of the 
United States during the Spanish War, or who is a veteran volun- 
teer firemen, shall be removed from any position in the Classified 
Service except in the manner prescribed by section 21 of the Civil 
Service Law. 

3. The provisions of this rule shall apply to the removal of any 
person from a graded position by reduction to a position in a lower 
grade, but shall not apply to a suspension from service for lack of 
work or reduction of force. 



(U8320) 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES. 

Vol. 1. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 
AND TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER. 

Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 

Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN, and INSPECTOR. 



VOL I. PART I. 

Axeman. 



INDEX. 

Previous Examination Papers, pp. 4 to 8. 
Typical Questions and Answers, pp. 10 to 28. 



NEW YORK: 

The Engineering News Publishing Company. 

1906. 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engineering News Publishin(j Company 



PKEFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" which have been included 
in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical in word- 
ing with those actually given at the examinations, as copies of the 
original papers are not readily procurable, but they do embody the 
substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," the 
answers indicate in a general way only what is required of the can- 
didate, and are not intended to be perfect and complete, as reason- 
able variance of opinion may exist as to what is the best answer in 
many cases, owing to differences in interpretation of the question 
and in education and experience. 

In order to perpetuate the value of this book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing for 
the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions and 
Answers" have been interleaved, to provide space for notes, sketches 
and additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



AXEMAN. 



Technical. 
{Salary — $720 per annum.) 1901. 

1. Describe the shaping and driving of a stake so as to secure the 
best result as to solidity and accuracy of position. 

2. What does a rodman have to do besides carry and drive stakes ? 

3. What conditions control the sizes and lengths of stakes ? 

4. How would stakes be set for a job of sewer work? 

5. In doing street grading, where slopes have to be provided for, 
state the positions of all stakes that would be set at a cross-section 
in embankment, and also what marks would be placed on them. 

6. (a) Describe fully the work of setting a centre stake on a 
transit line, (h) How are such stakes marked? 

7. Describe the operation of cutting a good bench mark on the 
root of a tree. 

8. In what other ways besides the use of stakes are stations 
marked on a line? 

9. In doing leveling, where points have to be set on between sta- 
tions, what are such points called? 

10. Describe the operation of setting reference stakes or other- 
wise referencing a point which may be lost unless so marked. 

11. Describe the method you would pursue to cut straight on a 
line through brush. 

12. (a) If called upon to set up a transit instrument, what two 
points are to be particularly attended to ? (b) Would you screw the 
leveling screws very tight, or how? 

18. Write decimally the following number: One million, 
twenty-three thousand and eighty and thirty thousandths. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Add 219 ft. 7 in., 847 ft. 9 in., 796 ft. 3 in., 654 ft. 11 in., 
798 ft. 5 in. 

2. Multiply 690,875 by 78,096. 

3. Add 2-3, 5-8, 4-9, 11-16, 17-18. 

4. If 91 yards of cloth cost $26-1, how many yards could be 
bought for $24-1? 

5. If 3| is 2i times a certain number, what is 3| times the same 
number ? 

6. Divide 322,622,362 by 78,746. 



AXEMAN. 



Technical. 

1902. 

1. May a stake drive crooked from improper driving? If so, 
state in what way? 

2. What other causes may make a stake drive badly? 

3. (a) How far apart are centre stakes ordinarily placed on the 
line of a street to be graded? (h) How far apart are stations made 
on sewer work? 

4. (a) What marks are placed on centre line stakes for grading a 
street? (h) Are stakes ever placed between regular stations, and if 
so, how are they marked? 

5. (a) In what way can an axeman assist the chainman in windy 
weather? (h) How can he assist the transitman in such weather? 

6. (a) How are stations marked on rocks? (h) How on a stone- 
block pavement? (c) How on an asphalt pavement? 

7. If called upon to hold the front end of a chain, state all the 
things you must attend to, in order to get correct measurements. 

8. Show and describe how you would cut a bench mark on the 
root of a tree. 

9. If called upon to hold the rod, state all you would do in a case 
where the rod had to be extended. 

10. Describe the operations of setting up a transit instrument in 
the field, not using the box. 

11. What other duties ordinarily fall upon an axeman besides 
those mentioned in previous questions? 

12. Write the following number (not numbers) decimally, ten 
thousand and seven and forty-three ten thousands. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Addition. 

2. Multiplication. 

3. Add 3-5, 5.-8, 11-16, 7-15, 3-10. 

4. What number added to 7-9 of 18 3-4 will equal 9-10 of 41 2-3? 

5. If a laborer can reap a field of grain in 4 4-5 days, how long 
would it take four laborers to reap a field 6 1-4 times as large. 

6. Division. 



6 
AXEMAN. 



Technical. 

1903. 

1. What are the duties of an axeman as you understand them ? 

2. In carrying an instrument on the tripod, where there are 
bushes and fences, what is the safest way? 

3. If called upon to set up a transit instrument over a point, 
state the important things you should pay attention to ? 

4. In what ways can an axeman assist a transitman while he is 
setting up a transit? 

5. How do you fix points in soft, marshy ground? 

6. If for any reason you were told to set an offset stake at the 
end of a line, how would you do it? 

7. (a) What do the letters T. P. mean when used in connection 
with a set of levels? (h) What do the same letters mean when used 
in an extensive survey of a portion of the city ? 

8. In the transit work (not the level work) of running the centre 
line of a street in the city, how far apart are the stakes usually 
placed and what marks are placed upon them? 

9. What additional marks are placed upon them to indicate what 
grading is to be done? 

10. When heavy filling or cutting are to be done, what other 
stakes are set at each station besides the centre stakes and how are 
they marked? 

11. Write in figures, the whole number, one million seventy thou- 
sand and five hundred and seven, followed by a decimal number 
fourteen thousandths? 

12. Write in words the following number, 3099077009. 

Mathematics. 

1. Addition. 

2. Find the amount of 

19 4-5 20 5-9 

+ — 

16 7-3 54 3-7 

3. A field is 56 rods wide and contains 25 acres 88 square rods. 
Find the cost of fencing it at 66§ cents a yard. 



4. If a man can walk 200 miles in 9.375 days, how far, at the 
same rate, can he walk in 15.625 days ? 

5. A church is 85.64 ft. long, 51.28 "ft. wide and 31.5 ft. high to 
the eaves. Find the cost of painting the outside walls at 34 cents a 
square yard. 

EXPERIENCE. 

1. What is your age? 

2. (a) State what your education has been, giving dates and 
places, (h) State particularly whether you have pursued any en- 
gineering studies, and if so, state the length and character of the 
course. 

3. State fully the practical experience you have had with en- 
gineers, giving length and character of service. 

4. Give the names and addresses of two or more persons to whom 
application may be made, if necessary, for verification of your state- 
ments. 



8 
AXEMAN. 



Technical. 

November 3, 1905. 

1. (a) Write in words 1006.306. (h) Write in figures seventy 
and three hundredths. 

2. What is the difference in area between 4 square feet and four 
feet square? 

3. How many tenths of a foot are there in 30 inches ? 

4. What is the difference between a rod used for a transit survey 
and one used for a level survey? 

6. In cutting brush, what is the best way to keep on line ? 

6. Assume that the engineer sent you to the office to bring every- 
thing necessary for a transit survey; what would you bring? 

7. How is a stake referenced when it is likely to be destroyed ? 

8. How many stakes would be required to give stations in a tran- 
sit line haK a mile long, allowing 7 for plus stations, including the 
last stake? 

9. Where a railroad cut is to be made, where are the stakes set? 

10 and 11. Write in plain letters (about i in. high) the abbre- 
viations for the following as written on stakes : (a) Forty-one plus 
fifty, center Line; (5) Slope Stake 15 numerator, 20 denominator; 
(c) Bench Mark, plus seventy-one, point, two, six, three. 

12. (a) How is a transit point accurately marked on a stake; (b) 
How when it falls on a rock ledge? 

13. In going through brush with an engineer's instrument on its 
tripod, what is the safest way to carry it ? 

14. How would you clean a rusty tape? 

15. How would you set up an engineer's instrument? 

Mathematics. 
Give all the figuring on the ruled sheets. 

1. Add 49 ft. and 8 in.; 6 ft. and 9 in.; 13 ft. and 11 in.; and 
7 ft. and 8 in. 

2. Add 4.05 ft., 19.982 ft., 17.33 ft. and 2.638 ft. 

3. Subtract by fractions and by decimals f from yf • 

4. Divide 21 by f, multiply by f, add | and subtract i. What 
is the result? 

6. Four men working 8 hours each can shovel 128 cu. yd. of 
earth; how many cubic yards of earth can 8 men shovel if they work 
12 hours each at the same rate? 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 



AXEMAN, 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 



AXEMAN. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 



1. What are the duties of an axeman? 

The duties of an axeman are to prepare, drive and mark stakes; 
to cut brush, fell and blaze trees, and keep the line clear for sighting 
and chaining as directed. He must cut points on stones, assist in 
setting up instruments, in chaining and running the rod. He must 
carry tools, keep them in good condition, and be generally useful. 



2. What tools would you be likely to handle in a transit party, 
and for what purposes would you use them? 

A broad axe for felling and blazing trees and for driving stakes. 

A hatchet for driving spikes, trimming stakes, cutting benches, 
etc. 

A brush hook for clearing lines. 

A hammer, chisel and punch for cutting marks on stones. 

A bar or pick, shovel and trowel for uncovering transit points, 
digging up hard or frozen ground, etc. 



3. What are stakes used for? 

Stakes are used to mark points required for future use, for ex- 
ample, to fix transit points, to mark lines, grades, stations, slopes, 
etc., and to reference important points. 



4. Describe the various kinds of stakes that are best adapted for 
the purposes mentioned in Question 3? 

For transit points, stakes should be of oak, locust or chestnut, 
about 2 to 4 in. square, or 2 to 4 in. in diameter, if round, and about 
15 to 18 in. long, sharpened at one end for driving. 



11 



For grades, stations, slopes, references and finders, stakes should 
be of pine or other available timber, about 1 in. thick, 2 to 4 in. 
wide and 15 to 20 in. long, squared and trimmed on one or both sides 
for marking, and sharpened on one end for driving. 



V 



Stake. 




(Line)^^ 



Hub with 
Guard Sixxke. 



5. How should stakes be pointed? 

They should be pointed evenly on all sides to make them drive 
straight. 



6. How should stakes be driven? 

Stakes should be driven straight down. If the stake tends to 
slip by the point, it should be drawn and not straightened after 
driven. It should be firm and at the required depth. If the stake is 
driven slightly off line it may be brought to its proper position by 
driving a stone or another stake against it. 



7. What causes may there be for a stake not driving straight? 

It may not be properly pointed, not started straight or not struck 
squarely on top. It may strike a stone or some other obstacle in the 
ground. 



8. After a stake has been driven in soft ground and is still loose, 
what do you think it advisable to do ? 

Draw the stake and substitute a longer one, or if no longer one 
is at hand, try the same one again after filling the hole with solid 
material. If this fails, the stake may be made firm by wedging it 
between other stakes previously driven around the point. 



9. How are stakes marked? 

Line stakes are marked by their stations, viz.: full stations 
4- 00, 5 + 00> ©"tc, intermediate points being marked with the plus 



12 

from the last full station, as + 50, 5 + 65, etc. They are marked 
so one can read the stations in walking forward along the line. 

On grade stakes the cut or fill is marked thus : C. 5.4, F. 2.3, etc. 
The distance to the right or left of the centre line may be marked 
on the other side. 

Slope stakes are marked with the word "slope," "s. s.," "slope 
left," etc., and the distance from the centre may be put on the other 
side. 

Eeference stakes are marked with the letters "R. P.," the station 
of the point referenced, and the distance to it. The marking should 
face the point referenced. 



10. What is meant by a reference stake and what references are 
:given to it? 

A reference stake is a finder for some important point of the 
survey. Two or more such stakes will enable one to locate the 
point referenced, although all trace of it is lost. The description 
of the reference stakes, the distance and the general direction to the 
point reference are given. 



11. What is a finder stake ? 

A finder is usually a flat stake set alongside another which is 
flush with the ground, to help find the latter. The finder is left a 
foot or so above ground, the marking facing the original stake. 



12. For what purpose are stakes set between regular stations? 

Stakes are set between regular stations where there is a change 
•of grade, where the line changes its direction, or at the beginning or 
•end of a curve; also at prominent breaks in the slope of the ground, 
and at points where the grade runs out. 



13. When a street is to be graded through fields and a deep cut is 
to be made, state how far apart the regular stations would be and 
just what stakes the engineer would set at each station. 

The regular stations should be 50 ft. apart on tangents and 25 ft. 
apart on curves. Where rock is encountered the stations should be 
about 25 ft. apart. At each station the engineer would set: 

A centre stake with the station and the centre cut marked upon it. 

A grade stake at each side line with the cut marked on it. 



13 



A slope stake at the intersection of each slope with the natural 
surface of the ground. 




Reference Stake ^ 
Guard f*->^^ 



Plan of 
Roadwcxy 



14. How would you locate an important stake in high grass ? 

An important stake in high grass or in places where it may be 
lost or not readily found should always be referenced to trees or 
other permanent objects, or else to other stakes driven some distance 
away. A long finder having a small flag attached should be driven 
beside the stake. 

15. Where and how are reference points fixed? 

They are usually fixed in places that are likely to be permanent, 
such as corners of buildings, monuments, fire hydrants, catch basins, 
telegraph poles, trees, etc. The distances from two or more of these 
reference points to the points to be referenced and their description 
are recorded for future use. 

16. Suppose a point that has been referenced is lost, how can you 
relocate it? 

By swinging arcs from the reference points as centres and with 
the recorded distances as radii. The point of intersection of these 
arcs will be the point sought. 



17. What kinds of objects make good reference points ? 

Objects which can be readily found and which are not likely to 
be removed for a considerable period, such as corners of houses,, 
lamp posts, hydrants, poles, trees, etc. 



14 



Tree 




^O.S 



"^W^ 




18. How would you mark a point on a stake ? - 

A point on a stake is marked by a tack, preferably of brass. 

19. What are the stakes at the beginning and the end of a curve 
in a street or railroad called? 

At the beginning of a curve they are called points of curve 
(P. C.) and at the end of the curve points of tangent (P. T.). 

20. In running lines how are offset stakes set and what are they 
used for? 

They are set at right angles to the line run, and generally at a 
whole number of feet from it. They are necessary when an obstacle 
is on line (as a house, barn or tree) to continue the line beyond the 
obstruction. They may also be used as references in case the point 
on line is dug up or destroyed during construction. 

21. How can you locate a point in a bog? 

By driving a long stake and wedging it, if necessary, or by refer- 
encing the point and relocating it from the references whenever the 
point is to be used. 

22. How would you fix a point where for any reason stakes cannot 
be driven? 

If on a stone or flagging cut a cross, crowfoot or triangle, etc. 
On macadam or asphalt, drive a spike. In any case reference the 
points. 

23. How can a point be fixed on solid rock ? 

A cross or other suitable mark may be cut in the rock, or a 
copper plug set in sulphur or cement may be inserted in a hole 
drilled in the rock and the point marked on the plug. 



15 



24. How would you fix a point in macadam? 



By means of a spike, or by driving a stake into a hole in the 
macadam, previously made with a bar. 



25. Suppose a transit point had to be fixed in a paved street, how 
can it be done? 

If the street is paved with asphalt drive a nail, or remove a por- 
tion of the asphalt and drive a stake and recover. If paved with 
blocks, cut a mark on a block. On flagstones cut a mark, such as a 
cross, crowfoot, etc., as shown below. The points should be 
referenced. 



t-! 



26. What is a Gunter chain? 

The Gunter or surveyor's chain is a link chain used for land sur- 
veying; it is not accurate enough for city work. It is Q6 ft. long and 
consists of 100 links, each 7.92 in. in length. A tag is attached to 
each 10 ft., marked according to its position from the end. 




27. What is the engineer's chain? 

The engineer's chain is similar to the Gunter chain. It is 
100 ft. long and contains 100 links each 1 ft. in length. A tag 
marks each 10 ft. of the length. 



16 



28. Why is the chain not accurate? 

Because it has too many wearing surfaces which render it liable 
to change in length. It cannot be read closely. It is heavy and 
cannot be pulled taut, to overcome sag. 

29. Name the measuring instruments you know of? 

Tapes from 5 to 500 ft. in length, chains, rods, transits, levels, etc. 

30. What would you consider best for distances of 10 ft. or less? 
A graduated steel tape. 




31. What for distances over 10 ft.? 

Graduated steel tapes, and for distances over 50 ft. tapes with 
compensating spring balance and thermometer attachment. 




32. Explain fully what must be observed in chaining? 

The chain should be held horizontally; there should be no kinks 
nor interference. The bobs should be held steadily and accurately 
over the points, and the tape pulled taut. Care must be observed in 
keeping tally. 



17 

33. How can you tell when the tape is horizontal? 

Either by a spirit level attached to the tape or by observing 
whether the angle made by the tape and plumb bob string is a right 
angle. Experience will enable one to judge very closely. 



34. If you are carrying the forward end of the tape, state all the 
points to be observed to do accurate work. 

The head chainman should observe that the tape is free from 
kinks and interferences, that it is horizontal, that the proper pull is 
applied, and that the tape and bob are held steadily and on line 
before the measurement is taken. After fixing the forward point, 
the measurement should be repeated as a check on the work. He 
should also call and check the stationing. If partial chain lengths 
are used, he should observe the reading carefully, and be sure that 
the rear chainman holds at the proper point at the next measurement. 

35. Which is most accurate, chaining up or down hill, and why? 

Down hill is the more accurate because the rear end of the tape 
can be held on or close to the rear point. This makes it easy for the 
rear chainman to hold his end, thus enabling the head man to set 
the forward point more accurately. 

36. In windy weather is there anything an axeman can do to aid 
in the work, aside from driving stakes ? If so, what ? 

He can shield the bob for the transitman while "setting up," or 
the bob for the chainman while chaining. He can aid in shielding 
the tape from the wind if accurate work is desired. 

37. What is meant by breaking chain? 

Where the ground is steep, complete chain lengths cannot be ob- 
tained in one measurement, and partial chain lengths must be used. 
This measuring in partial chain lengths is called ^^Dreaking chain." 

38. In chaining down steep slopes, how would you avoid possible 
error in carrying the distances along ? 

The tape is run out its full length. The rear chainman holds 
zero of tape over rear point ; the front chainman calls out the 
partial distance measured and marks the point on the tape with 
chalk. In getting the next measurement the rear chainman holds 
at the marked point, and the front chainman fixes the forward point 
as before. This operation is repeated until the entire chain length 



18 

has been covered, when the chain is taken ahead and rear chainman 
holds again at the zero. 



39. If in comparing a chain you find it short, how would this 
affect the work done with it in this condition? 

All the distances measured appear longer than they actually are, 
and correction should be minus. 

40. If a chain be out of level in measuring will it measure too 
long or too short? 

It will measure too long. 

41. In measuring to set a point do you take the nearest or 
farthest point? Why? 

The farthest point, because in measuring to set a point with a 
given tape reading, the point set is farthest when the tape is hori- 
zontal. 



42. If the city buys a lot and an old Gunter chain which has 
not been tested is used to survey the ground, would the city pay 
more or less ? - 

The city would pay less. 

43. If two competent chainmen chain over a mile twice, how 
close should the results come? 

With a link chain the results should be within 5 ft. 
With an ordinary steel tape, they should be within J ft. 
With a spring balance tape and compensating attachment, within 
0.1 ft. 

44. When only a part of the chain is held, which of the two 
chainmen takes the forward end? 

The head chainman. He should always hold the forward end of 
the chain and thus avoid subtractions and liability to error. 

45. Why do you not lay the chain on the ground while chaining? 

Because the ground is uneven and offers obstructions to chain- 
ing, and secondly, because it is not usually level. 

46. Why are measurements taken horizontally? 



19 ■ 

Because the map or plan of a survey is the horizontal projection 
of the points in the survey, and horizontal measurements give the 
projected distances for plotting. 

47. What would you do if stakes ran short? 

Obtain suitable sticks of timber or branches of trees from which 
stakes may be prepared. 

48. What are the duties of a flagman in a transit party ? 

He sets the flag ahead to enable the axeman to get the line in 
clearing; he selects points ahead as directed by the transitman, and 
gives back and fore sights whenever required. The flagman should 
remain at a point on which a sight is being taken until called ofl. 

49. Describe the method you would use in cutting a straight line 
through brush? 

I would get the line from the transitman and start cutting the 
brush low, throwing it to one side, taking care that it does not fall 
across the line. I would keep in line by sighting on points which I 
know to be on line or by getting the line from the transitman. 
Where possible, the axeman should work towards the transitman in 
clearing. 

50. How would you line yourself in, in running a transit line 
through a thicket? 

I would place one or two rods on line high enough to see over 
the thicket and range myself in with these rods and the transit, if 
visible. ^ . 

51. What is a ranging rod and what is it used for? 

It is a rod of steel or wood, round or hexagonal, 6 to 10 ft. long, 
and having each foot painted alternately red and white or black and 
white, etc. The rod is pointed at the bottom, the wooden rod having 
an iron shoe. It is used for giving sights and ranging in lines. 

52. Describe fully the work of setting a stake on a transit line. 
How are such stakes marked? 

The transitman gives line; the rear chainman plumbs the zero 
end of the chain over the rear point, and the front chainman plumbs 
the required point on the tape. When the transitman and rear 
chainman both signal o. k., the front chainman sets the point 
on the ground. The axeman then drives a stake at this point. The 
chaining is then repeated and the point is now obtained on the 
stake at the required distance and on line. The tack is driven in 



20 

the stake at this point and the line and distance of this tack is 
checked. 

These stakes are marked with the number of the station from the 
beginning of the line, a whole station being 100 ft. If not at a 
full station, the plus distance from the preceding full station is also 
marked upon it. 

53. How far apart should stakes be set on a job of sewer work? 

In flat grades, points are given 20 ft. apart. On steep grades, 
40 to 50 ft. On curves, less than 20 ft., depending upon the radius. 

54. What is a plumb bob and what is it used for? 

A plumb bob is a conical-shaped metallic weight suspended by a 
string attached to its upper end. When freely suspended, the point 
of the bob is- vertically beneath the point of suspension. It is used 
in chaining, setting up the transit and by masons to get a plumb line. 




55. How does a plumb bob affect the accuracy of work? 

A plumb bob must be sharp and truly shaped, otherwise it will 
not give an accurate plumb line, thereby causing errors in setting 
up the transit and in chaining. It should be heavy to keep it steady 
in windy weather. 



56. How does holding the bob affect the work? 

Improperly holding the bob in chaining and giving sights causes 
error in the work. Lines, distances and angles are all liable to be in 
error. The string and bob must both swing freely, and be held 
steadily and accurately over the point. 



57. Is there any better way of steadying a long bob string than 
by simply bracing yourself? 

A long iron rod with a movable arm rest may be used in cases 
where the bob string has to be held high over the point. 

58. What is a vernier? 



21 



A vernier is an auxiliary scale sliding alongside a main scale, 
enabling the smallest divisions of the main scale to be still further 
subdivided. 

59. Where is a vernier used? 

It is used on leveling rods, transits and other measuring instru- 
ments where very accurate readings are desired. 




60. What is a leveling rod? 

It is a graduated wooden rod upon which readings are taken with 
the level. It may be made in one piece or in two sections sliding 
against each other and provided with a target and attached vernier. 
It is graduated to feet and tenths or feet and hundredths, the vernier 
in the latter case reading to thousandths. 



61. If called upon to hold the rod in leveling, state as far as you 
can all you must do to insure correct work? 

Hold the rod vertically on the proper point. 

Move the target as directed by the observer. 

Upon signal clamp target and hold rod for a second reading; read 
carefully and record. The leveler then checks the reading. If a 
long rod is used, care should be taken to have the target properly set. 

Care should also be observed that the target and rod do not slip 
and that the rod is held on same point in both fore and back sights. 



62. Suppose that in leveling the rodman should ask you to fix a 
turning point (T. P.) for him, how would you do it? 

Select a fixed point, visible from the instrument, at about the 
right height, and upon which the rod can be held vertically and 
freely rotated, or, if not available, a long pin or spike may be firmly 
driven in ground. 



22 




Ranging Rods. 



Leveling Rod3. 



23 

63. What is meant by a "T. P." in leveling? What in transit 
work ? 

In leveling a "T. P." is a turning point, that is, it is a point 
used between "set-ups" of the instrument to carry along a line of 
levels. 

In transit work, a "T. P." is used to indicate a "Transit Point" 
or a point which is occupied by the transit. 

64. What is a "B. M."? 

A "B. M." is a permanent point whose elevation is accurately 
established. It is used for starting or checking a line of levels. 

65. What is the difference between a back sight and a fore sight 
in leveling? 

A back sight is a rod reading taken on a point whose elevation 
is known. If added to that elevation it will give the ^Tieight of in- 
strument." 

A fore sight is a rod reading taken on a point of unknown eleva- 
tion. If subtracted from the "height of instrument," it will give 
the elevation of the point. 

66. What are intermediates and why are they taken in leveling? 

They are readings taken between regular stations where the line 
changes direction or where the natural surface of the ground changes 
slope, so that when plotted the levels will show a true profile of the 
line. 

67. What is the quickest way of setting up a level on a side hill? 
Set one of the legs up hill and the other two down hill. 

68. In setting up a level how do you know when you are about 
the right height? 

Stand the level up with the tripod legs together and sight along 
the telescope with the bubble approximately in the middle and ob- 
serve where the line of sight strikes with reference to the rod. This 
will enable one to judge very closely. 

69. What is a spirit level and what is it used for? 

A spirit level is a glass tube filled with some spirit, such as 
alcohol, except for a bubble of gas, which rises to the centre when the 



24 

tube is horizontal. It is used to get a horizontal line, and is at- 
tached to transits, levels, etc., for this purpose. 

70. What is a transit used for? 

A transit is used for measuring angles and running lines, and 
for leveling when long bubble is attached. 

71. What is the safest way of carrying an engineer's transit or 
level to prevent accident or derangement under every condition? 

The instrument should be carried in its box, care being taken 
that the clamps are tight, allowing no motion. 

72. What is the best way to carry a transit through brush? 
Carry the transit under your arm with its head forward. 

73. Describe how you would cut a bench mark on the root of a 
tree. 

Select a portion of. the root facing the line of work on which the 
rod can be held vertically without interference by limbs. Cut the 
root so as to leave a projection on which the rod can be freely rotated. 
Drive a spike into the root. Blaze the bark above the point and 
mark upon it "B. M." and the elevation of the point. 

74. (a) If called upon to set up a transit, what points are par- 
ticularly to be attended to ? 

(&) Would you screw the leveling screws very tight or how? 

(a) The head should be screwed snugly on the tripod, the lower 
clainp being loose. 

The legs should be set firmly in the ground. 

The plate should be approximately level, and at a convenient 
height. 

The plumb bob should swing approximately over the point, so 
that it may be brought exactly over it by means of the "shifting 
centre." 

(h) The leveling screws should be made snug, but not tight 
enough to bind. 

75. What is the difference between a rod used for a transit sur- 
vey and one used for a level survey? 

The rod used for a transit survey is comparatively thin, made of 
wood or iron, round or hexagonal in shape, and about 6 to 10 ft. 
long, each foot being painted alternately with contrasting colors. 



25 

It is used for sighting and ranging in lines. The level rod is 
rectangular in shape, about G-J ft. long, sliding out to 12 ft. It is 
usually graduated to feet, tenths and hundredths, and provided with 
a target, having attached vernier, enabling one to read to thou- 
sandths. 

76. Assume that the engineer sent you to the office to bring every- 
thing necessary for a transit survey, what would you bring? 

Transit, two sighting rods, axe, brush hook, stakes and a bag 
containing field book, one 100-ft. and one 50-ft. tape, three plumb 
bobs, hammer, chisel and punch, string, crayon, and tacks. 

77. How many stakes would be required to give stations on a tran- 
sit line half a mile long, allowing 7 for plus stations, including the 
last stake? 

Thirty-four stakes. 

78. How would you clean a rusty tape? 

Give tape a vigorous rubbing with a cloth soaked in kerosene or 
benzine. Rub with fine emery cloth or emery powder until all rust 
is removed. The tape can then be polished with dry cement or some 
suitable metal polish, such as "Putz." 



Mathematics. 

79. Write decimally ten thousand and seven and forty-three ten- 
thousandths. 

10007.0043. 

80. Write decimally one million twenty-three thousand eighty 
and thirty-thousandths. 

1023080.030. 

81. Write in words 3,099,077,009.0321. 

Three billion ninety-nine million seventy-seven thousand nine 
and three hundred twenty one-ten-thousandths. 

82. Subtract by fractions and by decimals f from ^|. 
By fractions: 

12 3 6 3 3 

T6" ¥ — ¥ ¥ — ¥ 



26 

By decimals: 

12 _ 3 ^ 0.75 — 0.375 = 0.375. 

S.^ Aflfl 3 5 1 1 7 3 

Find Least Cominon Denominator. 



5 — 8- 


-16 — 


15- 


-10 


2)8 — 


-16 — 


3 - 


_ 2 


2)^- 


- 8 — 


3 - 


- 1 


2)2- 


- 1 — 


3 





2—3 
5 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 = 240 L. C. D. 



f = 4t* 




t = HS 




iA = fW 




A = Hi 




To =" 2TU 




7 33 _ 
2 4 - 


_ q 1 3 

- ^^40 



84. Divide 2 and J by |, multiply by f, add | and substract J. 
What is the result? 

91_:_4V3i3 1 

5V5V3_4_3 i 75_|_48 32 70 + 4(S d-i .il -.27 

^^T-^Sl^T ^ — BTI^4 64 Q^ ■ — W^ — ^^T- 



85. If 3f is 2 J times a certain number, what is 3^ times the same 
number ? 

2i X number = 3f 
or f X number = ^ 
Therefore munber = i£- ^ | = 1/ X f = | = 1^ 
and 3i times U = %^ X | = f| = m 



86. What number added to f of 18f will equal /^ of 41f 



e of 41^ — 9 V125 375 — 75 

7of1ftS — 7^75 — 525 — 175 

7 5 175 4 5.0 ~ 17 5 275 9911 



87. If a laborer can reap a field of grain in 4f days, how long 
would it take 4 laborers to reap a field 6^ times as large? 



27 

Four laborers will reap same field in i X ^f days = 1^ days. 
Since the field is 6i times as large, it will take 6^ X li = ^- X f 
= 7^ days. 

88. If a man can walk 200 miles in 9.375 days, how far at the 
same rate can he walk in 15.625 days? 

In one day he will walk ^^|f 5 miles. 

In 15.625 days he will travel g^oo^ x 15.625 miles = i^ = 



89. A church is 85.64 ft. long, 51.28 wide and 31.5 ft. high to 
the eaves. Find cost of painting outside walls at 34 cents per sq. yd. 

^ ^ / 85.64 X 2 X 31.5 , 51.28 X 31.5 X 2 >^^ ^^ ^^ 
Cost = ( ^ \ ^ JX $0.34 

2 X 31.5 



/ ^ X -il 5\ 

((85.64 + 51.28) '' \^ ' j X .34 = $326.87. 



Calculations shown at right. 85.64^ 

51.28 



136.92: 

7 



958.44 
.34 

393376 

287532 

$326.8696 



90. A field is 56 rods wide — contains 25 acres 88 sq. rods. Find 
cost of fencing at 66| cents a yard. 

Area = 25 acres 88 sq. rods = 25 X 160 + 88 = 4088 sq. rods. 

Width = 56 rods. Therefore length = AffJ. = 73 rods. 

There will be 73 + 73 + 56 + 56 = 258 rods = 258 X 5^ = 1419 

yards of fencing. 
Cost will be 1419 X 66f cents = 1419 X $f = ^-^ = $946.90. 

91. If 9f yd. cloth cost $26^, how many yards could be bought 

for $24f ? 

26^ i^ 
One yard will cost -— ^ = -^ = 7 X f := U = $2* cost per yard.. 

24* 1-2 4. 

For $24* we can buy -^f = -^ = ^ = ^- = 8f yards. Ans. 



92. Pour men working 8 hours eacli can shovel 128 cu. yd. of 
earth; how many cubic yards of earth can 8 men shovel if they 
work 12 hours each at the same rate? 

1 man can shovel in one hour :|^ X |^ X 128 = ^- = 4 cu. yards. 
Therefore 8 men working 12 hours can shovel 8 X 12 X 4 = 384 
cu. yards. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 

AND TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 
Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER 
Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN and INSPECTOR 



VOL I. PART II. 

Chainman and Rodman 



INDEX 

Previous Examination Papers, pp. 4 to 15 
Typical Questions and Answers, pp. 18 to 49 



NEW YORK: 

The Engineering News Publishing Company 

1906 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engineering News Publishing Company 



J. F. TAPIEY CO. 

BOOK M AN UFACTURE R3 
NEW YORK 



PKEFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" which have been included 
in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical in word- 
ing with those actually given at the examinations, as copies of the 
original papers are not readily procurable, but they do embody the 
substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," the- 
answers indicate in a general way only what is required of the can- 
didate, and are not intended to be perfect and complete, as reason- 
able variance of opinion may exist as to what is the best answer in 
many cases, owing to differences in interpretation of the question 
and in education and experience. 

In order to perpetuate the value of this book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing for 
the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions and 
Answers" have been interleaved, to provide space for notes, sketches, 
and additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS, 



CHAINMAN AND EODMAN. 



Salary, $900 to $1200 per annum. 



Technical. 

1. Suppose you are measuring a practically level line a mile long, 
state exactly all you would do, and especially how the tally would 
be kept. 

2. In measuring up hill, how does the rear chainman hold 
steadily at the right point? Does he ever touch the stake; and, if 
so, why? 

3. Where the surface is very steep what is done in chaining and 
what precaution should be taken to prevent wrong tally being 
made? 

4. Suppose a survey has been made of a lot of which all the 
corners were definitely fixed before the survey, and the chain is 
found to be long, how should the notes be corrected? 

5. State all the ways in which errors may be introduced or 
caused in chaining. 

6. Suppose the bank of a river is to be located from field notes, 
how Would the work be done by the chainman? 

I. How would you measure past a tree on a line and produce 
the line in practically the same direction without an instrument? 

8. Suppose a piece of ground to have two sides parallel but of 
unequal length (in other words, trapezoidal in form), how would 
you measure it and compute the area? 

9. {a) Explain the construction of a vernier on a leveling rod. 
(h) For what purposes is it desirable to use the vernier, or do you 
consider it essential to always read to thousandths of a foot? 

10. Suppose the rod to be extended to 10 ft., figure how much out 
of plumb it must be to make an error of one-thousandth in the read- 
ing? 

II. State all the means made use of by rodmen to keep the rod 
plumb. 



12. State all the means made use of by a rodman to avoid 
errors in reading the rod. 

13. State all the ways in which errors are made in connection 
with turning points, from every cause whatever. 

14. State all the causes of errors in any way connected with 
the target aside from its reading. 

15. State the considerations that should always govern a rodman 
in locating turning point. 

Arithmetic. 

1. (a) What is the difference between the square of i of 32 and 
i of the square of 32? (h) Extract the square root of 25.0|, correct 
to 4 places of decimals. 

2. The perimeter of a rectangular field in 140 rods; from 1 
corner to the centre of the field is 25 rods; find dimensions and 
area. 

3. On opposite sides of a stream 40 ft. wide stand two trees, 
83 ft. and 57 ft. in height; what is the distance between the tops 
of the trees? 

4. A city lot cost $2 250 at 40 cents a square foot ; its parallel 
sides were 39 ft. and 51 ft. respectively; what was the length of 
the lot? 

5. A cylindrical column of granite is 13.09 ft. in circumference 
and its volume is 818.125 cu. ft. What is the height of the 
column ? 

Experience. ^ 

1. Have you taken a regular course of instruction in engineer- 
ing in any college or technical school? If so, at what one? What 
was the length of the course and what degree or diploma, if any, 
did you receive? 

2. If you have not taken such a course state what your education 
in engineering has been. 

3. Have you followed any mechanical pursuit? If so what and 
for how long? 

4. State what experience you have had as chainman or rodman 
or any higher or lower engineering position, particularly in city 
work. 

5. If there are any other points that you consider important 
in your experience which would help you as a chainman or rodman, 
state them fully. 



6 
CHAINMAN AND KODMAN. 



Technical. 

October, 1900. 

1. What is your age? Have you pursued any course of teclini- 
cal study ; if so, what, where, when, and how — also did you graduate ? 
What practical experience have you had in engineering work? 

2. Describe method or methods pursued on the aqueduct work in 
measuring up steep ascent. 

3. Describe method pursued in measuring down steep descent. 

4. State two causes of error in chaining depending upon the 
weather or other natural causes, and how they may be either partly 
or wholly overcome. 

5. State three other most prominent causes of error in chaining 
dependent upon the chainman and how they may be overcome. 

6. In chaining up a hill, how can the rear chainman hold firmly 
to the point in plumbing? 

7. In what ways may a wind blowing lengthwise of a chain off- 
set the accuracy of the work in using it? 

8. Make a careful sketch of a vernier of a leveling rod, and 
explain how it is possible to read to thousandths of a foot on a rod 
divided only to hundredths. 

9. State what readings should be taken to thousandths, and also 
others in which tenths of a foot are sufficiently accurate. 

10. Explain or illustrate the various ways in which Bench 
Marks are fixed on engineering works. 

11. How can you be reasonably sure that you are plumbing the 
rod correctly in both directions? 

12. How may you introduce error in the use of a New York 
rod when you have to extend it? 

13. How can you expedite the work of a leveler and make it 
more accurate by care in the location of turning points? 

14. In giving "rod" for an accurate sight, describe everything 
you would do. 

15. What notes should a rodman keep? 



7 
PKOMOTION EXAMINATION— ROD]\iAlT. 



Technical. 

July 19, 1901. 

1. (a) What educational training have you had which fits you 
for the position of Kodman? (h) What practical experience have 
you had? 

2. Hake a sketch of a vernier on a rod, and show how thou- 
sandths of a foot can be read. 

3. Describe all the ways in which mistakes are made in reading 
a rod, after the target is set. 

-1-. (a) Does a rod held out of plumb make the rod reading on a 
point too great or too small, and why? (h) How may this fact be 
made use of in plumbing a rod? 

5. What errors may arise from lack of care in setting the 
target? 

6. What notes, if any, should a rodman keep? Give a specimen 
in pencil of your best form. 

7. Does the location of a turning point by a rodman require 
any special care or thought on his part, and, if so, what considera- 
tions govern this? 

8. How would you fix a transit point on a center line in a 
tunnel ? 

9. How would you transfer a level from a given point on the 
surface to one in the tunnel? 

10. In doing accurate measuring with a steel tape, how are 
temperature changes provided for? 

11. Aside from providing for temperature changes, what four 
sources of error must be provided against? 

12. What is the best method of holding the rear end of a chain 
steady, when it is necessary to hold over a point at that end? 

13. In running a transit line very carefully and setting a fore 
sight from a back-sight, is more than one sight given the flagman, 
or how is it done? 

14. In chaining on a long line, what method do you pursue, to 
be sure that no mistakes are made in tallying ? 

15. Why is it necessary in doing careful leveling to make the 
back-sights and fore-sights equal? 



8 
CHAIRMAN AND RODMAN. 



Technical. 

1. State what points a rodman should keep a record of the 
reading on, and give a sample of such notes. 

2. State all the difficulties a rodman has to contend against in 
trying to do good work in the city. 

3. (a) In what way does the sun affect the work? (h) How 
does wind affect the work of leveling? (c) How may frost, ice, 
snow, etc., affect it? 

4. Describe the characteristics of a thoroughly good turning 
point; also of a poor one. 

5. In what ways are errors caused by a rodman being careless or 
not understanding his business fully? 

6. Does it make any difference in the progress of work as to how 
•the rodman locates turning points ? And if so, state how. 

7. Sketch a vernier on a rod and explain how it is that thou- 
sandths of a foot can be read by it. 

8. What fraction of an inch is one-thousandth of a foot 
equal to? 

9. Describe the sights used in running transit lines for back- 
sighting to. 

10. Name five things requiring close attention in making accu- 
rate measurements with tape or chain. 

11. How does the heat of the sun affect a tape, and how is this 
compensated for in the use of an engineer's tape? 

12. Describe clearly and fully the duties of a rear chainman in 
measuring up a hill. 

13. How can the rear chainman hold the tape steady over a 
point ? 

14. (a) Describe the duties of a forward chainman. (h) How 
is the record of chain-lengths kept? 

15. State all the difficulties that tend to introduce error in the 
work of chaining. 



1. Find the square of 20:1 ^%^o- ^ind tlie square root of 3053.172 
correct to four places of decimals. 

Mathematics. 

2. A street a quarter of a mile long has on each side a sidewalk 
YJ ft. wide; what will it cost to pave this sidewalk (both sides) 
with stones each 2 ft. 9 in. long by 1 ft. 8 in. wide and costing 75c. ? 

3. Two vessels sail at the same time from the same place, one 
sailing due east and the other due north, at the rate of 6 miles and 
S miles an hour, respectively. How far apart will they be at the 
end of 12 hours ? 

4. A man paid $2 262 for a field in the shape of a trapezoid. The 
parallel sides were 119 yd. and 200 yd., respectively, the distance 
between them 110 yd. What did the land cost him by the acre ? 

5. How many square yards in a graveled walk 6 ft. wide, running 
around a circular fish pond whose diameter is 70 yd. ? 



10 
CHAINMAN AND RODMAN, 



Technical. 

(1904.) 

1. Describe briefly and state the difference between the rods 
used in transit, level and stadia work. 

2. (a) To which of the above kinds of work does the rule "fore- 
sights and backsights must be equal" apply? (h) What is the reason 
of above-named work? 

3. Why should the rod be held plumb? State the different 
reasons for each kind of above-named work. 

4. Assume an inch divided into quarters; describe and show by 
sketch a vernier which will divide it into twentieths. 

5. State the several ways in which a good rodman can facilitate 
the work of leveling. 

6. (a) In leveling, why should a rod be waved to and fro? 
(h) Would it do to wave it from side to side provided it was 
always in a plane perpendicular to the line of sight ? Give reasons. 

7. What part of an inch is a thousandth of a foot ? 

8. If a level is out of adjustment and reads an error of .03 at 
100 ft., what will the error be at 400 ft. distance? 

9. (a) How can you lay off a right angle with a chain? (h) 
How with a piece of cord? 

10. Describe fully the work of the two chainmen in chaining 
for levels up a steep hillside. 

11. In the use of a tape, what four important points must be 
observed to get accurate results? State in their order of im- 
portance. 

12. (a) Why is the Gunter's chain used for farm surveys? 
(h) Why the steel tape for city work? 

13. In leveling, what errors, which affect the accuracy of results, 
are due to a rodman's lack of care? 

14. State every way in which the reading of a rod should be 
checked. 



11 



15. If the wind was blowing hard, state every precaution you 
would exercise in measuring a line where considerable accuracy 
was desired. 

Mathematics. 

1. Reduce the following to thousandths of a foot, Y ft. 9 in., 
G and 7/10 ft., 42 in., 12 and 607 thousandths ft. and 17 and | in. 

2. Four men can shovel 9 yd. of gravel per hour; how long will 
it take 50 men to shovel 4 500 yd. of gravel, working 8 hr. a day ? 

3. What is the contents in cubic yards of a retaining wall which 
has one face vertical and is 123 ft. long ; one end is 18 ft. high, 
base 10 ft., top 2 ft., and -the other end is 12 ft. 6 in. high, base 
7 ft. 6 in. and top 2 ft.? (The prismoidal formula may be used, 
but is not required.) * 

4. If a rod has the target at 8.23 ft. and is 4 in. out of plumb, 
how much of an error in thousandths is made in the elevation? 

Experience. 

1. Have you taken a regular course of instruction in engineer- 
ing in any college or technical school? If so, what one? What 
was the length of the course and what degree or diploma, if any, did 
you receive? 

2. If you have not taken such a course, state what your educa- 
tion in engineering has been. 

3. Have you followed any mechanical pursuit? If so, what and 
how long? 

4. State what experience you have had as chainman or rodman, 
or any higher or lower engineering position, particularly in city 
work. 

5. If there are any other points that you consider important in 
your experience which would help you as a chainman or rodman, 
state them fully. 



12 
PROMOTION EXAMINATION— RODMAN. 



Technical. 

(Bronx.) 
July 28, 1905. 

1. (a) What is the difference between an "inch" and a "tenth?'' 
(b) What between a square yard and 3 sq. ft.? 

2. (a) How many feet are there in a Gunter's chain? (&) 
Why was this adopted as a standard of measurement ? 

3. If a tape were tested and found to be 99.98 ft. and a 
measurement had been made with it giving 1 500 ft., what would 
be the correct distance? 

4. Explain 2 ways of laying off a right angle with a tape ? 

5. If a rod is divided into lOths and you wish to read it to 50ths 
explain and show by sketch how a vernier would be constructed 
to do it. 

6. In leveling, (a) Why should a rod be waved to and fro? 
(h) Why should a second sight be given? 

7. Why should backsights and foresights be equal? Explain 
answer in detail. 

8. Explain method of setting slope stakes for an embankment 
with slopes of 1 to 1. 

9. In what particulars should a rodman be more careful in using- 
an extended rod than a low rod? 

10. Describe fully a rodman's work in accurately setting a transit 
point to be located on a stake. 

11. In making accurate measurements with a tape, name 5 im- 
portant things requiring attention. 

12. (a) What are the duties of a rodman on a stadia survey? 
(h) Describe the rod used. 

13. What are the requirements in common of a turning point 
and a bench, and in what respects may they differ? 

14. Describe how, by the use of a chain alone, you would 
measure an angle so it could be mapped from your notes. 

15. Show a set of notes of B. M.'s and T. P.'s such as a rodman 
would keep on a bench run. 



13 

CHAINMAN AND RODMAN. 



Technical. 

October 19, 1905. 

1. How do the duties of a rodman differ in surveys with (a) 
a level; (Z>) transit; (c) transit with stadia? 

2. What are contour lines? How are they obtained? 

3. (a) A cubic foot of water contains how many gallons? (h) 
"Weighs how much? 

4. How is the velocity of flow of a stream measured ? 

5. (a) What is the difference in decimals of a foot between 9.66 
in. and .572 ft.? (h) Express thirty-six thousandths of a foot in deci- 
mal figures, (c) Turn 94.86 in. into feet and decimals of a foot and 
express the result in words. 

6. Assume that a New York rod can be clearly seen at a proper 
distance. What must the rodman do to assure a correct reading? 

7. The distances between sights on a bench run are as follows: 
B. S., 450 ft; F. S., 200 ft.; B. S., 600 ft.; F. S., 300 ft.; B. S., 
140 ft.; F. S., 300 ft.; B. S., 150 ft.; F. S., 300 ft.; B. S., 50 ft.; 
F. S., 300 ft. Will there be any error from curvature? Give your 
reasons. 

8. Describe how by the use of a chain alone you can measure an 
angle in the field so it can be mapped. 

9. A target set on a rod at 5.00 ft. is 0.3 ^ft. out of plumb. How 
much difference will it make in the elevation read as compared 
with the correct elevation? 

10. Explain how each of this following points necessary to be 
observed in accurate measurement with a tape are attained; level, 
tension, temperature, alignment. 

11. How would you establish and mark a first-class bench on 
the root of a tree ? 

12. In making a long measurement what is the best method of 
keeping accurate tally of the number of chain or tape lengths ? 

13. Explain the principle of the vernier and illustrate by a sketch 
showing a reading of 2.424 ft. 

14. Describe two methods of turning a right angle offset by use 
of a chain alone. 



14 

15. In accurately measuring a base line for triangulation, what 
special precautions are taken? 

Mathematics. 

Give all the figuring on the ruled sheets. 

1. What is the area of a trapezoid of which the two parallel 
sides are 127 ft. 8 1-3 in. and 55 ft. 6 in., and the distance between, 
them is 42 ft. 3 in.? 

2. Add 19 ft. 6i in., 13 ft. 3i in., 7 ft. 2| in., 19.75 ft., 27.667 ft, 
3.5 in., 66 in. and 196 in. and express the result in (a) feet and 
inches; (h) feet and decimals of a foot, and (c) inches. 

3. A pipe 4 ft. inside diameter, running full, discharges into a 
canal 5 ft. wide with vertical sides; how deep will the water be in 
the canal? 

4. A rectangular field contains li acres and is 3i times as long 
as it is wide; what are the dimensions of the field? 

5. Three measurements added together give 2 400 ft. ; the longest 
is 1 100 ft. more than the shortest and the other is 1 100 ft. ; how 
much is the longest and how much is the shortest ? 



16 

PEOMOTION TO CHAINMAN AND KODMAK 

November 2, 1905. President Borough of Brooklyn. 

1 to 3. Demonstrate your ability to write a clear, concise state- 
ment and your fitness for promotion by a suitable statement of 
your age, education and experience. 

^ 4. What are curvature and refraction and what relation do they 
bear to each other? 

^ 5. What can a rodman do in his work to eliminate the effects of 
curvature and refraction? 

6. Describe the appliances on a tape where extreme accuracy of 
measurement can be had. 

7. What points other than the proper use of such appliances 
must be observed to do accurate measuring ? 

K 8. When a rodman sets a high rod what check should he observe 
in order to be sure his setting and reading of the rod is correct ? 

9. Assume two lines intersecting at an acute angle, how could 
you make measurements with the tape alone so that the angle could 
be correctly drawn on a map? 

10. In measuring a line a mile long, on city streets, how closely 
should two independent careful measurements agree? 

11. (a) In a stadia survey what are the duties of a rodman? 
{h) Same in a line survey with a transit, 

12. How does a self -reading rod differ from a New York rod? 

13. (a) How would going down a hill affect your choice of T.P.'s? 
(h) How would it affect the chaining? 

14. Assume a rod with target set at 8 ft. to be 0.3' out of plumb, 
how much difference will it make in the elevation read as compared 
with the correct elevation? 

15. A piece of property 500 ft. wide is to be divided into 5 lots 
of unequal width. Beginning at the narrowest, each to be 5 feet 
wider than the one before it. Find the width of the lots. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



CHAINMAN AND RODMAN 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



CHAINMAN AND RODMAN. 



Typical Questions and Answers. 

1. State fully what you consider the duties and requirements of 
a rodman to be. 

His duties and requirements are: 

To "run" the rod, take readings and keep record of same as a 
check upon the leveler's notes. 

To select and fix T.P.'s and B.M's. 

To act as chainman, set and mark stakes, etc. 

To set up instruments. 

To take the place of the leveler in the latter's absence. 

To assist in carrying instruments, tools, etc. 

To assist in calculations, office work, etc. 

He should be familiar with the principle of leveling, understand 
the sources of error in his work, and avoid them as much as possible. 
He should know the rudiments of trigonometry, be able to use 
logarithms and assist in earthwork and other calculations. 

2. What are the duties of a chainman? 

The chainman runs the chain, reads it and keeps tally of the 
chain lengths. He should know the sources of error in his work and 
avoid them as much as possible; he directs the axeman in clearing 
lines for chaining, and the stakeman in driving stakes, assists in 
carrying instruments and acts as rodman when required. 

3. How do the duties of a rodman differ in surveys with (a) a 
level; (h) transit; (c) transit with stadia? 

(a) In leveling the rodman runs the leveling rod, selects and 
fixes T. P's. and keeps record of rod readings as a check on the 
leveler. 

(h) In transit surveys, the rodman gives line with the sighting 
rods, plumb-bobs, etc.; acts as chainman^ sets, marks and references 
stakes. 

(c) In stadia work the rodman "runs" the stadia or self-read- 
ing rod, giving the transitman sights at every point, the location of 
which is desired, such as fence and building corners, tops of ridges, 
bottoms of hollows, breaks in contours, etc. 



19 

4. How many men are required to make up a surveying party? 
For railroad or similar work: 



Transit 
Party, j 



1 Chief of party. 

1 Transitman. 

2 Chainmen. 

1 Axeman. 

2 Flagmen 



Level 
Party. 



f 1 Leveler. 
■] 2 JKodmen. 
[ 1 Topographer and Eecorder. 



For city surveys: 

1 Chief of Party; 1 Instrumentman, 2 Chainmen and 1 Axeman 
make a good working party. 



5. Describe a Gunter's and Engineer's chain. 

The Gunter's chain is 66 ft. long, and contains a hundred links, 
each link (including half the connecting rings) being 7.92 in. in 
length. It is made of steel or iron, the connections being brazed to 
reduce wear. Its length makes it convenient for use in surveys 
where the acre is the unit of measure, 10 sq. chains being equal to 
one acre. 

Brass tags are attached, marking each 10 ft. of the length. 

The Engineer's chain is similar in construction to the Gunter's. 
It is, however, 50 or 100 ft. long, each link, including connecting 
rings, being 1 ft. 




20 

G. What is the length of the link compared with a foot, how 
many inches and decimals? 

In the Gunter's chain the link = 7.92 in. 
In the Engineer's chain, the link = 12.00 in. 

7. Why is a link chain not reliable? 

The link chain has too many wearing parts, rendering it liable to 
change in length. Links are apt to be deformed. It is heavy and 
sags considerably. Foreign objects, such as grass and weeds, get be- 
tween the links, affecting the measurements. The chain is not grad- 
uated to enable close readings to be taken. 

8. WTiat sources of error are likely to arise in the long use of a 
chain which is not likely to occur with a tape? 

The sources of error are wearing of the links at their connections 
and change in their lengths caused by bending or stretching. 

9. What is the use of a spring balance applied to one end of a 
tape? 

The spring balance is used to give a uniform tension to the 
tape at each measurement. The amount of tension should be 
sufficient to overcome the effect of sag, and is determined , by com- 
parison with a standard. The level bubble sometimes attached to 
the balance indicates whether tape is horizontal. 




10. What is the most accurate instrument you know of? 

(The answer to this question will depend entirely on the in- 
dividual knowledge of the applicant. It may be a transit with some, 
a tape with others, etc.) 

11. What are the different kinds of tapes you know of? Describe 
them and state where used. 

The tapes most commonly used are : 
(a) 50 and 100 ft. metallic or cloth tapes, used for rough 
work, such as cross sectioning. 



21 

(I) 50 and 100 ft. steel ribbon tapes graduated to feet, tenths 
and lOOths, standard usually, at 62° F., used for fairly ac- 
curate work. 

(c) 50, 100, 200, 300 ft. steel wire tapes about 3/16 in. wide 
usually not graduated and provided with spring- balance level 
and thermometer attachment. These are used for very ac- 
curate traverse and base line work. 




12. "Would you test the length of a chain 
Yes, where accuracy is required. 



13. Are measuring instruments (tapes) likely to change? If 
so, how would you test them? 

Yes, they are liable to change. Would test them by compar- 
ison with a standard tape whose length is accurately known, or 
with some fixed standard. 

/ 14. In testing a tape or chain by a fixed standard, is there any- 
-thing else to be considered other than level and temperature, and 
if so, what and how is this secured? 

The atmospheric conditions must be considered. There should 
be no wind, the temperature should be uniform, there should be 
sufficient light to read the tape accurately. 

The tension to be applied and method of supporting and reading 
the tapes must be considered, so that fine adjustment can be 
obtained. 



22 

These conditions may be secured by setting two momiments in 
the ground enclosed in a brick building and determining the dis- 
tance between points set in them very accurately. They should 
be a tape length apart as near as can be set. 

At one end another point should be set accurately at right 
angles to the line of the monuments. Provision should be made 
for supporting the tape at each end, and by means of a screw or 
turnbuckle to allow a slight motion of the tape. The zero of the 
tape is brought accurately over the point; and a transit, set up on 
the offset point and sighted on the monument determines the 
correct length of the tape. By means of an auxiliary scale the 
excess or deficiency of the tape is measured. 

15, In comparing with an official standard, would you lay 
the measure down or would you suspend it? 

I would suspend it. 

16. Describe manner of using chain with spring balance and 
level attachment; explain use of spring balance and level. 

The bubble is used to bring the tape horizontal. The metal 
barrel which encloses the bubble is arranged so as to enable it to be 
adjusted to the temperature indicated by a thermometer (attached 
or detached). The end of the tape is marked by a groove on the 
balance. An index on the balance indicates when the required pull 
is obtained. This pull should be uniform for each tape length. The 
rear chainman plumbs the zero over the rear point and the head 
ehainman watches the bubble, the balance and his plumb bob, and 
applies the required pull. When the bubble is in the centre and the 
Tear chainman and transitman have both signalled o. k. he fixes the 
forward point, which is then checked, and the chain carried ahead. 
The balance should be set for the temperature on starting work 
and adjusted when required. 

IT. State exactly how tally is kept of chain lengths and how 
errors may be made. 

Tally of chain lengths may be kept by means of chaining pins. 
The front chainman is supplied with nine plain and one marked pin. 
At the end of each chain length he leaves a pin, which is picked up 
by the rear man, the tenth chain length being marked with the special 
pin. When the rear man has picked up all the pins he turns them 
over to the head man, showing that It) chain length? have been 
measured. Tally may also be kept by marking the number of 
chain lengths on stakes or stones placed beside the points, or by keep- 



23 



ing record in a note book, in which case the rear chainman should 
call out the back station, the head man calling out the forward one. 
^^^len pins are used errors may be made by forgetting to pick up 
pins, by losing same, or by putting them in by mistake. When pins 
are not used errors are usually made by carelessness in marking 
and calling off the stations. Tally may also be kept by means 
of an indicator made for the purpose. 





(D 






18. Where very accurate chaining is required, are pins used for 
fixing the points? Describe the best methods. 

Pins are not used for fixing points in accurate work. In open 
country the points may be marked by fine tacks driven into stakes 
or marks may be made on chaining plates provided for the pur- 
pose. On city streets chaining plates may be used, or fine scratches 
made on the pavement. Chaining plates - which can be readily 
adjusted to line and grade afford the best means for marking points 
where great accuracy is required. 

19. What use do you make of a plummet in chaining? 

A plummet or plumb bob is used to transfer a point on the 
tape to a point on the ground vertically beneath and, conversely, to 
obtain a point on the tape vertically over a point on the ground. 
It is also used for "line" and as a guide to the chainman in hold- 
ing the tape horizontal. 

20. State all the sources of error in chaining which may arise 
from natural causes or carelessness. 

Errors due to natural causes arise from: 

Temperature changes — causing expansion and contraction of 
tape. 



24 

Wind — making it difficult to hold tape or bob steadily or accu- 
rately, and causing shortening of chain length owing to lateral 
swaying of tape. 

Errors due to carelessness arise from: 

Not holding correctly over points. 

Interference with bob or bob string. 

Tape not being on line. 

Not holding horizontally and steadily. 

Not applying proper tension. 

Kinks in tape and interference with it. 

Poor or ill defined points. 

Errors in keeping tally and reading plusses. 

21. Should measurements with a chain be made horizontally;, 
if so, for what reasons? 

They should either be made horizontally or reduced to the 
horizontal if measured on a slope. Because the map or plan of 
a survey is the horizontal projection of the points in the survey, 
and horizontal measurements give the projected distances for plot- 
ting. 

22. How do you make them horizontally? 

The tape is brought to the horizontal position by means of a 
spirit level or by judging the right-angle between the tape and 
plumb bob string. Experience will enable one to judge closely. 

23. State two causes of error in chaining depending upon the 
weather or other natural causes, and how they may be either partly 
or wholly overcome. 

(a) Lateral swaying of tape due to wind partly overcome by 
"breaking chain," that is, by measuring in partial chain lengths 
and by shielding both tape and bobs. 

(b) Expansion and contraction of tape due to changes in tem- 
perature overcome by applying the proper temperature correction 
to the measured length, or by using compensating attachment. 

24. State three other most prominent causes of error in chain- 
ing, dependent upon the chainman, and how they may be over- 
come. 

1. Not holding tape horizontal, and inaccuracy in holding over 
points. 

2. Not applying proper tension, kinks and obstruction. 

3. Errors in reading tape. 



25 

Errors No. 1 and 2 may be overcome by exercise of proper 
care, and repeating measurement. Error No. 3 can be eliminated by 
checking readings. 

25. What are the several ways in which wind affects the ac- 
curacy of chaining? 

It increases the measured distance owing to the lateral sway- 
ing of the tape. Disturbance of the tape and bob makes it dif- 
ficult to hold accurately and st adily over a point. 

26. If in measuring up a hill the chain be laid on the ground, 
how will the distance obtained be affected? State two ways by 
which the error in the work may be eliminated. 

The measured distance will be too long. Errors may be eliminated 
by either measuring horizontally, "breaking chain" if necessary,, 
or by measuring along the slope, ascertaining the differences of 
elevation between the measured points, and reducing the slope 
measurements to the horizontal. 

'' 27. In chaining down steep slopes how would you avoid possible 
error in carrying the distances along? 

The tape is run out its full length. The rear chainman holds 
zero of tape over rear point, the front chainman calls out the 
partial distance measured, and marks the point on the tape with 
"chalk. It getting the next measurement the rear chainman holds 
at the marked point, and the front chainman fixes the forward 
point as before. This operation is repeated until the entire chain, 
length has been covered, when the chain is taken ahead and rear 
chainman holds again at the zero. 

7 28. In chaining up a hill, how can the rear chainman hold 
firmly to the point in plumbing? 

He can hold to the point by standing to one side of tape and 
bracing himself with one foot down hill and other foot firmly 
set on ground, the tape being held at the proper height, or he may 
use a rod set firmly in the ground as an aid in holding steadily to 
the point. 

^ 29. In good chaining, what other things must be attended to 
besides accurate plumbing? 

Besides accurate plumbing, attention should be given to the fol- 
lowing : 

Proper tension should be applied. 



26 

The tape must be held steadily and not jerked. 

Tape should be held horizontally and on line and be free from 
kinks and interference. 

Correction for temperature should be made or compensating 
device used. 

30. How does heat affect the length of a chain or steel tape ? How 
is this allowed for in very careful work? 

Heat lengthens the chain or tape. It is allowed for by adding 
to or subtracting from the measured length the correction due to 
the difference between the observed and standard temperatures of 
the tape, or by using a compensating attachment. (Tapes are 
usually standard at 62° F.) 

The temperature correction for 1 ft. = .000006 of a foot for 
each degree Fahrenheit. For a 100-ft. tape and a change of tem- 
perature of 100° F. the correction equals .06 ft., or | in. 

31. If you had to measure a long line between two given points 
accurately, how would you proceed? 

The transit is set up on one end of the line -and directed on a 
fixed flag at the other end or on some intermediate point on line, 
previously established. 

Start at the higher point and chain towards the lower, using 
entire chain lengths wherever possible. The rear chainman carries 
the zero end of the tape. 

Run out the full length of the tape. Obtain line from transit- 
man and smooth off the ground at the end of the chain length. Then 
observing bubble or bob string, hold tape horizontal and steady. Fol- 
low directions of transitman for line, apply given tension and at 
proper signals fix the forward point, taking care to make it as fine 
and distinct as possible. Repeat the measurement, and if it checks 
carry, the chain ahead. The operation is repeated until the entire 
line has been measured. Where chain has to be "broken" the rear 
chainman should hold at the point previously held by front man. 

The tally should be carefully kept and if possible marked on 
stones or stakes placed beside the points; all plus readings should 
be checked. 

32. Describe fully the work of setting a stake on a transit line. 
How are such stakes marked? 

The transitman gives line ; the rear chainman plumbs the zero end 
of the chain over the rear point and the front chainman holding 
bob string on the tape, at the proper point, is set on line. When the 
transitman and rear chainman both signal o. k. the front chainman 



27 

indicates the point on the ground, where the axeman drives 
a stake. The measurement is then repeated carefully and the point 
is set on the stake at the required distance and on line. The tack 
is driven in the stake at this point and the line and distance of 
this tack is checked. 

These stakes are marked with the number of the station from 
the beginning of the line, a full station being 100 ft. If not at 
a full station the plus distance from the preceding full station 
is also marked upon it. 



' 33. When obliged to use a plumb-bob at rear end of chain or 
tape, state how you can secure accuracy of position and level. 

Accuracy of position is secured by standing along one side of 
tape, holding tape firmly at proper height with one hand, the other 
hand holding bob string against the tape and over point; or better, 
by bracing yourself with the aid of a rod or other suitable support. 
The ring of the tape may be slipped over the rod and the tape set 
and held in position. 

Accuracy in level is secured by means of an attached spirit level, 
or by judging the right angle between the tape and bob string. 



■ 34. In measuring up an incline, is there any better way for the 
rear chainman to hold his end of the chain to the point than by 
bracing himself so as to steady the plumb line ? If so, describe it. 

Yes. 

By using a rod such as a transit flag, set firmly in ground behind 
point, but not close enough to disturb it, the tape being attached 
to rod so that it can be raised or lowered. The rod is held with 
one hand and moved into position so that bob held in other hand 
and at the required point of tape is exactly over point. 



35. Suppose it to be necessary to be able in the future to re- 
locate a point (in case the stake marking it be destroyed), what 
provisions are usually made by which this can be done? 

The point should be referenced to two or more permanent objects 
close by, such as corners of buildings, hydrants, trees, etc. 

The description of these reference points, and the distances and 
general direction to the point referenced should be recorded for 
future use. 

In open country, where permanent points are not available, 
several offset stakes are set, preferably at right angles to the line. 



28 



and the distances to them are recorded. The original stake can then, 
be readily replaced, if lost. 




■'^ Pill ji 



-eo.s;. 




V 36. In running a transit line very carefully and setting a fore- 
sight from backsight is more than one sight given the flagman, or 
how is it done? 

In running lines by back and foresights more than one sight 
is given the flagman. The work is usually done by the "double 
r versa!" method (also called "double hubbing" or "double cen- 
tering"). 

The transit is set accurately over point, levelled up and telescope 
turned on given backsight and clamped. The telescope is then 
"plunged" or "revolved" about its horizontal axis and a point set 
ahead. The instrument is then undamped, revolved about its 
vertical axis and telescope again directed to the backsight, clamped 
and plunged, and a second point set ahead beside the first. The 
mean of the two points thus set is on true prolongation of the line. 



37. (a) How would you fix a transit point on a center line in a 
tunnel ? 

(Id) How would you transfer a Bench Mark from a given point 
on the surface to one in the tunnel? 

(a) When the tunnel is in rock, holes are drilled in the roof, 
and wood or metal plugs, provided with hooks for the suspension 
of plumb-bobs, are driven into the hole's. Where timber bents are 
required to support the roof, nails or hooks may be driven in the 
timbers to fix the center line. 

(?)) First transfer the Bench Mark to a point on one of the shaft 
timbers at the surface. With the aid of a steel tape this B. M. is 



29 



transferred to the bottom of the shaft at a point vertically beneath, 
the bottom being prepared for the purpose. This tape measurement 
should be repeated several times and the mean taken, thousandths 
being estimated, or the B. M. may be transferred to the bottom 
by taking readings on the tape with the level set at the bottom of 
shaft. Using this new point as a Bench Mark the levels are run in 
the usual manner, establishing Bench Marks as conditions require. 



38. If ordered to lay off a right-angled offset with a chain, how 
-would you do it? 



-Zero of Tape 



Sft.Mark' 




rPerrc/I at 
Sir.Mar/r' 



Let A B represent the line and C the point on it at which the 
offset is desired. Lay off 3 ft. from C, giving a point E. One man 
then holds the zero of tape at E and the 9-ft. mark at C. The 
tape is then pulled taut with a pencil held on the 5-ft. mark, which 
gives a point, D, on the offset line. Equi-multiples of 3, 4, 5, such 
as 6, 8 and 10; 12, 16 and 20, etc., may be used. The longer the 
distances used the greater the accuracy with which the offset may 
he laid off. 



39. How else can you lay off a right angle with a tape or with 
piece of cord? 

Double up the string in two equal portions, place the center at 
A, unfold and mark the points B and C on the line equi-distant 
f rom^ A. Then with one end of cord at B and other end at C, hold 
pencil at its middle point, pull it taut, and mark the point D. 
The line joining A and D will be at right angles to B C. 



30 



The tape may be employed in the same manner. 




40. Describe how by the use of the chain alone you can measure 
an angle in the field. 

Let ABC represent the angle which it is required to measure. 
Set a point D on line A B and a point E on line B G, 
Measure the distances B D, B E, and D E. 

The angle B is then computed from the triangle BED, all the 
sides being known. 

If a, hj, c represent the three sides and s half their sum, then 



COS. J 5 = 



s (s — b) 



M 



a c 



Or D and E are set equidistant from B and the tie line D E 
measured. 

D E becomes the chord of a circle whose radius is B D = B E. 
Dividing D E hj B D and looking up a table of chords the angle 
sought is obtained. 




31 

" 41. How would you measure past a tree, on a line and produce 
the line in practically the same direction without an instrument? 

At some convenient point near the tree on line, a right-angle 
offset line is run (as explained in Question No. 38) and a point set 
at a measured distance. A second right angle is turned at this point, 
and a line run parallel to the original, until the obstruction is 
cleared. A third offset at right angles to the second is run and 
a point set at a distance equal to the first offset giving a point on 
the original line. This line can then be continued by turning a 
right angle at the point set from the last offset line. 

42. What would you consider an allowable error in chaining 
100 ft. and 1000 ft.? 

For rough work : 0.1 ft. in 100 ft. ; 1.0 ft. in 1 000 ft. 

In fairly good work the allowable error would be : .010 ft. in 
100 ft. and 1000 ft.? 

For accurate traverse work : .002 ft. in 100 ft. ; .02 ft. in 1 000 ft. 
For long base line work : .001 ft. in 100 ft. ; .01 ft. in 1 000 ft. 

' 43. If a tape were tested and found to be 99.98 ft. and a measure- 
ment had been made with it giving 1 500 ft., what would be the 
correct distance ? 

Correct length = 15 X 99.98 = 1 499.70 ft. 

44. Suppose you have measured the distance between 2 fixed 
points, and find it 1 000 ft. long, and that after your doing it you 
find for some reason your chain (which should be 100 ft. long), 
is too long by 1 in., what would be the correct length of line? 

The correct length would be 1 000 ft. 10 in. 

45. Suppose the quantity of ground in an existing lot which the 
city has to pay foi depends on survey which was made with engi- 
neer's chain (not tape) which had been in use and had not been 
tested before making the survey, will the city probably pay more 
than it ought to or will it pay probably less for the lot? 

The city will pay less than it ought to. 

46. Suppose a survey had been made of a lot of which all the 
corners were definitely fijced before the survey, and the chain is 
found to be too long, how should the notes be corrected? 

Add to each recorded measurement a correction equal to the 
error in the chain length, multiplied by the number of chain lengths 
in the measurement. Thus, if i = correct length, e = error in 



33 







"X 




=r 


I 


^ 




^ 




-9 




^ 




-8 




e 




-7 




^ 




-6 




^ 




-5 




^ 




-4 




+ 




^ 




* 




« 




«- 




-t 




+ 




i 




e 








■Q- 


1 ^ 


54& 


« 



687Q, 
.8271; 



.«260&1. 
^7 48^ 



39 

1^ 



!o? 




Leveling Rods. 



32 



chain length, and n = number of chain lengths in the measurement, 
L = n -\- n e = n (1 -\- e). 

47. Suppose the bank of a river is to be located from field notes, 
how would the work be done by chainmen? 




:«^- 



\VtQ' 



Traverse lines are run from some established point. A, towards 
the bank of the river, and deflected at points B, C and D, so as 
to run close to and follow the bank. The distance to each angle 
point should be obtained. The angles between the lines should be 
obtained with the transit if possible, or they may be computed from 
chain, measurements of the heavy lines indicated in the sketch. 
To locate the bank, right-angled offsets to the traverse lines are 
taken at each "break" in the line of the bank. A tape is first 
stretched between consecutive stations along the traverse line. The 
chainmen then measure the shortest distance from the bank to the 
extended tape, obtaining at the same time the distance from the 
last angle point. From the measurements thus recorded the bank is 
located. 



48. Describe the different kinds of leveling rods, commonly in 
use, state how they are graduated. 

The New York rod is usually square, made in two sections, 6^ ft. 
long and sliding out to 12 ft. and provided with target having 



33 








"Xl 


-f- 


1 


f 


^ 




-9 


^ 




« 


€h 




-7 


4- 




-B 


^ 




-5 


■6^ 




■4 


^ 




^ 


* 




^ 


%- 




-It 






^ 


4 




LaJ 


^ 


1 62 


64& 

on A, 



6270, 



.6360 & 1. 
^267&8r> 



39 
33 

ll 



(OSO. 




Leveling Rods. 



34 

attached vernier — graduated to feet, tenths and hundredths, thou- 
sandths being read by means of the vernier. 

The Philadelphia rod, 6i or 7 ft. long, sliding out to 12 or 13 ft.,. 
having target and attached vernier. Graduated into feet and: 
tenths reading to .005 by vernier. 
j The Boston rod, 6^ ft. long, sliding to 11^ ft., provided with 

target and a vernier at each end. Graduated to feet, tenths and' 
hundredths. 

The self -reading, "speaking" or stadia rods of lengths from 6 to- 
18 ft., graudated so that they can be easily read at long distances.. 



^"^ 49. (a) What is a vernier ? 

A vernier is an auxiliary scale sliding along the main scale, by 
means of which the smallest divisions of the latter can be subdivided. 



50. Make a clear sketch of the New York rod so you can show- 
how you can read to thousandths of a foot. 

The vernier is graduated into 10 divisions, each being equal to 
.009 ft. or .001 ft. less than the smallest division on the rod. The 
division on the vernier, which exactly coincides with a division on 
the rod, shows the number of thousandths that the zero of vernier 
is above the next lowest graduation on rod. 



C 

TTTT 



O Ol o O Ol o 



U7;tTnTl , ■ ■ ,P , l.iJlllli.i,ii 



WTTm MM rm w ^ 



1 1 1 1 1 1 



■hOOOths.^ ^ ' T ^ T 



Vernier G reads 4.95 Ft. 
D '' 6.105 Ft. 



51. If a rod is divided into lOths and you wish to read to 50ths,. 
explain and show by sketch how a vernier would be constructed 
to do it. 

Four divisions (= 0.4) on the rod are transferred to the vernier 
on which it is divided into 5 parts. Each division on vernier will 
then be I of A = ro, o^ s^o less than the 0.1 division of the rod. 



35 



ow>»a>aio » oio»ff>oao 



rmn Arrrr 



II 1 1 I I I I rm I 1 1 I 1^1 I ' " ' 
50 f/75. I ' 1 ' I I 

O — ro 04 



Vernier A reads 2.1 Ft 
» ^ » 0.96 Ft 



The graduation on the vernier which coincides with a gradua- 
tion on the rod will show the number of 50ths that the zero of 
vernier is above the preceding graduation on rod. 



/ 52. What is a bench mark and how should it be located ? Wliat 
is a T. P. and its object? 

A bench mark is a permanent point whose elevation is accurately 
determined with reference to some fixed datum. It is used to start 
or to check a line of levels. It should be located so as to be easily 
found, accessible, permanent in character and permit the rod to be 
held vertically on it without difficulty. 

A T. P. is an intermediate point whose elevation is determined 
in order to carry ahead a line of levels. 



53. Explain or illustrate the various ways in which Bench 
Marks are fixed on engineering works. 

Bench marks are fixed on: — 

1. Copings of walls, such as area walls, retaining walls, abut- 
ment walls, &c. 

2. Water tables, sills, steps, column bases or pedestals that are 
set on firm foundations. 

3. On exposed roots of trees or on telegraph poles not apt to 
be disturbed. 

4. On catch basin heads and fire hydrants, &c. 

5. On exposed ledge rock, monuments, &c. 

In 1 and 2 square or circular cuts usually indicate the lo- 
cation of the B. M. 

In 3 spikes are solidly driven and location and elevation in- 
dicated on blazed portion above B. M. 

In 4 knobs or bolts and appropriate cuts mark the benches. 

In all cases they must be easily accessible, afford unobstructed 
sights and be readily identified. 



36 

' 54. In giving "rod" for an accurate sight, describe everything^ 
you would do. 

Select a good T. P. visible to the leveler, and convenient for the 
next set-up. 

See that the point is rigid for the time being, that the rod rotates 
freely on it and that the point, and bottom of rod are free from 
foreign matter. 

Hold the rod on the point, plumbing it by balancing it freely 
between the fingers; move the target up or down as directed by 
leveler, and upon proper signal clamp the target. Check setting, 
read carefully and record. 

If the high rod is used set the target accurately on proper gradu- 
ation and move the extension up or down, clamping at the proper 
signal. 

Move the rod to and from the leveler following his instructions, 
until signal O. K. is given finally; then remove rod carefully from 
T. P. and read. Be sure that neither the target nor the rod has 
slipped. Pecord the reading and have rod checked. 

55. How can you be reasonably sure that you are plumbing the 
rod correctly in both directions? 

By holdiiig the rod lightly between the fingers and observing 
that it balances itself when unsupported, also by moving the rod 
back and forth, setting the target to the smallest reading, and 
plumbing it as directed by leveler. Pod levels will enable one to 
plumb very closely. 

56. State all the sources of error you may introduce as a rod- 
man into your work through carelessness or neglect. 

1. Selecting poor and unstable T. P.'s. 

2. Holding the rod on the wrong point. 

3. Not holding the rod plumb. 

4. Permitting foreign matter to get under the rod. 

5. By setting the target wrong on a 'long rod. 

6. By letting the rod or target slip after setting. 

7. By reading the wrong end of vernier or in wrong 
direction. 

57. State how carelessness in manipulation, when extending the 
Tod, may introduce error. 

In using an extended or long rod errors may be introduced by — 

Not having the target set properly on starting. 

By slipping of the target before it is set by the leveler. 



37 

Slipping: of the rod before reading it, due to careless clamping. 

By not holding the rod plumb. 

By incorrect reading of the vernier. 

58. How can you expedite the work of a leveler and make it more 
accurate by care in the location of turning points ? 

(Other forms of same question.) State what things must be 
attended to in locating a turning point to the best advantage for 
correct and accurate work? 

In locating a T. P. for leveling, what should guide the rodman? 

In locating turning points the following points should be 
considered : 

They should be visible to the leveler. 

They should be convenient for the next set-up of the level. 

They should be about the right height (not too low nor too high). 

The distance from the instrument should not be too great 
(150 to 300 ft. in good work). 

The foresight should be equal to the last backsight if possible. 

The points should be firm and not easily disturbed. 

They must permit the rod to be held vertically and freely 
rotated on them. 

59. In careful work where you have not been instructed specifi- 
cally, how far would you think it safe to go from the leveler in 
giving a foresight? 

From 150 to 300 ft., depending on conditions of the atmosphere. 

60. Is the rodman called in any way to. assist in the prevention 
of mistakes in the record of sights at turning points, and, if so, 
state how in full? 

Yes. The rodman should keep a separate set of notes showing 
readings on all T. P.'s and B. M.'s as a check on the leveler. 
He should compute the elevations and frequently compare them 
with the leveler. He should have the readings checked before 
changing the rod. 

61. What notes should a rodman keep? 

He should keep notes of the readings on all T, P.'s and B. M.'s, 
their location and description, and the computed elevations. 

62. State all difficulties a rodman has to contend against in try- 
ing to do good work in the city. 



38 

The main difficulties a rodman encounters in the city arise from 
the interference due to traffic, obstructions to the line of sight, and 
projections from buildings. 

These render the selection of suitable turning points more 
difficult than in open country. 

63. Is it always necessary to read the rod to thousandths ? If not, 
state when less careful readings may be taken. 

On the T. P.'s and B. M.'s in accurate work the rod should be 
read to thousandths. 

In running profiles, cross sections, contours, etc., where B. M.'s 
have been already established along the line, it is sufficient to read 
to lOOths on T. P.'s, and only to lOths on center line, side or other 
stakes. 

<-- 64. Does a rod -held out of plumb make the rod reading on a 
point too great or too small ? How may this fact be made use of in 
plumbing a rod ? 

Holding the rod out of plumb makes the rod reading too great. 

By taking the shortest reading on the rod as it is swayed to and 

from the instrument the leveler, the error in plumbing is eliminated. 

65. Suppose the rod to be extended to 10 ft., figure how much 
out of plumb must it be to make an error of one-thousandth in 
the reading? 

The correct rod reading being 10.000 ft. the actual reading would 
be 10.001 ft., the distance out of plumb is thus equal to 
V 10. 001 ^—10. 000 2 = V.02000i = O.ldl' = 1.69" 

66. A target set on a rod at 5.00 is 0.3 ft. out of plumb. How 
much difference will it make in the elevation read as compared witii 
the correct elevation? 

The actual rod reading being 5.00 ft. and the distance out of 
plumb 0.3 f+., the correct reading will be 

^^5.0102 _ 0.30^ = \/2X9lO = 4.991' 

67. Suppose you are asked to set up a level, state every point to 
be observed. 

In setting up a level the following points must be considered : 
1. Condition of the instrument: 

a. The instniment should be firmly secured to the tripod. 
h. The tripod and leveling screws should be snug. 



39 

c. The clamp should be loose so that the head swings freely. 

2. Location of the instrument: 

a. The sights should be unobstructed. 

h. The instrument should be set in solid ground and as far as 
practicable from sources of disturbance. 

c. The sights should be of a length determined by the char- 
acter of the work and conditions of the atmosphere. 

3. Setting up the instrument: 

a. A rough sight should be taken on rod to observe that the 
line of sight does not strike below the bottom or above the top. 
h. The tripod legs must be set firmly in the ground. 

c. The head approximately level. 

d. One set of leveling screws about on line with the general 
•direction of the work. 

e. Instrument is then leveled accurately. 

68. Describe minutely everything requiring attention in the 
proper setting up of an engineer's transit in case you are called 
upon to do it. 

In setting up a transit the following points must be observed : 

The head should be firmly secured to the tripod. 

The tripod and leveling screws should be snug. 

The alidade clamp must be loose so that the head swings 
freely. 

The legs must be set firmly in the ground, the head being at a 
■convenient height for sighting. 

The plate should be approximately level and the plumb bob should 
swing very close to but not rest on the point, so that it can be 
brought exactly over it by means of the shifting head. 

One pair of leveling screws should be set on line, the plate 
leveled roughly, and the head moved until bob is accurately over 
point, when plate is accurately leveled. The transit is then ready 
for sighting. 

^ 69. Having a series of backsights and foresights starting from 
a bench mark, of known elevation, state how you would use them 
to obtain elevation of last point. 

First find the sum of all the backsights and the sum of all the 
foresights. Then take the difference between sum of the backsights 
and the sum of foresights. If the former is greater udd this differ- 
ence to the elevation of the bench mark. 

If the sum of the foresights is the greater, subtract this difference 
from elevation of the bench mark to get the elevation of the 
last point. 



40 

70. What are curvature and refraction, and what relation do- 
they bear to each other? 

As the earth is a spheroid points on the surface are not in the 
same horizontal place. The amount of departure from this plane is 
termed the "curvature." 

Refraction is the apparent raising of an object produced by the 
bending o." the rays of light in passing from the object to the eye 
(through layers of air of varying densities). 

Curvature causes an object to appear too low while refraction 
makes it appear too high. The correction for the former is there- 
fore to be added to and for the latter to be subtracted from the 
observed elevation. The correction for refraction is equal to about 
1/7 of that for curature, being 8 in. per mile for the latter and 
1.1 in. per mile for the former. For other distances the correc- 
tions for both curvature and refraction vary as the squares, being 4 
times as much for 2 miles, 9 times as much for 3 miles, etc. 



71. What can a rodman do in his work to eliminate the effects 
of curvature and refraction? 

. He should select T. P.'s so that foresights and backsights will be 
equal. Wherever the sights are necessarily unequal he should en- 
deavor to compensate in selecting succeeding turning points. , 

' 72. The distances between sights on a bench run are as follows : 
B. S., 450 ft.; F. S., 200 ft; B. S., 600 ft; F. S., 300 ft; B. S., 
150 ft; F. S., 300 ft; B. S., 150 ft; F. S., 300 ft; B. S., 50 ft; 
F. S., 300 ft. Will there be any error from curvature? Give your 
reasons? 

'No; there will not be any error, because the sum of the back- 
sights (450 + 600 + 150 + 150 + 50 = 1 400) in this case is- 
equal to the sum of the foresights (200 + 300 + 300 + 300 + 300' 
= 1400). 

The errors due to curvature as well as those due to refraction 
and adjustments are the same in amount for both the fore and the 
backsights, but plus in one case and minus in the other. They^ 
therefore, balance each other. 

73. Are sights ever taken between regular stations; if so, what 
are they called and how located? 

Yes ; they are called "Intermediates.'' 

In running profiles intermediate sights are taken: 



41 

1. Where there is a prominent change of slope in the surface 
of the ground. 

2. Where there is a change of grade. 

3. Where the center or side grade meets the natural surface. 

4. At angle points, at beginning and end of curves and at end 
of lines. 

They are located by plus distances from the preceding full 
station. 

* 74. In railroad or aqueduct work, how are stakes or stations 
usually marked or numbered — how are intermediate distances 
marked ? 

Stations are usually set at every 100 ft. from the starting point 
«ind marked 

1 + 00 2 + 00 3 + 00, etc. 

Where there is a change of slope or of grade and where the 
finished grade meets the natural surface, intermediate stakes 
are set and marked with the preceding station and the plus distance 
from it. Thus 5 + 25, 6 + 35, etc. 

•^75. Describe the sights used in running transit lines for back- 
sights. 

Plumb bobs either held or fixed. 

Steel or wooden rods 6 to 10 ft. long, each foot painted alter- 
nately with contrasting colors. 

Sharp pencil point, tacks, pins, etc. 

Sighting boards having well defined center lines. 

76. Why is it not desirable to have the line of sight run too 
close to the ground in many cases? 

If the line runs too close to the ground, the sight may be often 
obstructed by grass-weeds, stones, etc. It will also be affected to 
a greater extent by radiation or "air tremor," causing "dancing" of 
the rod and target. 

V 77. In what way does the sun, wind, frost, ice, snow, etc., affect 
leveling ? 

The sun causes shortening of bubbles, unequal expansion in dif- 
ferent parts of instrument, "air tremor" or "dancing" of rod, and 
"glare" of target. 

The wind makes it difficult to plumb the rod, and causes vibra- 
tion of instrument. 



42 



Frost, ice and snow render stable ste-ups more difficult where the 
level is set upon ice, snow or frosty ground, settlement will occur 
when the temperature rises. Bench marks are liable to change in 
elevation when set on objects which do not extend below frost line. 



78. What are contour lines? How are they obtained? 

A contour is a continuous line passing through points on the 
surface of the ground of equal elevation. It may also be defined 
as the line of intersection of a level surface with the earth's surface. 
The water edge of a pond or lake is an example. 



79. What is a profile and how constructed? What levels should 
be taken in the field in order to show the profile? 

A profile is a drawing showing the irregularities of the sur- 
face of the ground along a given line. 

Levels should be taken at regular stations, also at all changes 
of slope of the ground. 

To construct the profile, draw a horizontal line to represent 
the assumed datum plane. On this lay off to scale the stations 
at which elevations have been taken and plot the elevations at 
these points to any desirable scale. The line joining the latter 
points will be the profile desired. 

The vertical scale is usually magnified so that the "breaks" in 
the surface of the ground will appear more prominent to the eye. 



E1.100 



El.lOO 




'0 +75 WO £+00+27 3+00 4+00 +60 /5W\ \ 6+00" 

■fSl +18+50 

Fro+Ue on Cen+er Une of Proposed Street. 



43 

• 80. (a) What is a cross-section? 

(h) In taking a cross-section, for grading a new street, how 
many sights are usually taken and where? 

(a) A cross-section is a profile showing the breaks in surface of 
ground, at right angles to center line of the road. The grade 
line at the station at which the section is taken and the slope 
lines are also drawn to show the amount of cut or fill. 

(h) In cross-sectioning for new street sights should be taken at 
-center line, curb lines and house lines; at breaks in the surface, 
and at intersections of slopes with the surface of the ground. 



y 



81. E23)lain two methods of setting slope stakes. 



1. Plot cross-sections of road on cross-section paper and plot 
the grade and slope lines at the respective stations. The inter- 
section of the slopes and natural surface show at once the dis- 
tances of the slope stakes from the center line. These may be 
tabulated and the stakes set accordingly. 

2. Compute the cut or fill at the side or "shoulder" of the 
Toad. 

Obtain by trial with the level rod points on the surface such 
that their distance from the side stake will equal the slope 
X their height above or below grade. The slope stakes are set 
at these points. 



•' 82. Are the vertical and horizontal scales in a profile the same? 
If not why are they made in different scales? 

Horizontal and vertical scales are usually not the same in 
profile. 

The vertical irregularities of the surface are usually small com- 
pared with the length of line and the vertical scale is made larger, 
so that these changes in elevation will appear more prominent to 
the eye. 



' 83. Can you keep level notes ? If so, fill out blank sheet showing 
Iieadings of columns as you have been in the habit of keeping them 
and place therein figures enough to show your method. 



44 



• 


Left-Hand Page op 


Field Book. 




Right-Hand Page of Field 


Book. 


Pat< 


; 




r 








Party ^ 
(Title and location of work 


! 
























). 




Sta. 


B. S. 


H. I. 


F. S. 


Elev. 


Rem. 




B. M. No. 25 


(See p. 24) 
2)io0 






33.241 




Top of Hydi-ant, S W. Cor. 
i^iilton Scs. 

Centre Line, Jackson Ave 
Spike in Tel. Pole No. 324. 






35 491 






T. P. 


3.251 

4.2 

5.3 

3.2 

3.6 

3.6 

7.1 

6.235 


32.240 

31.3 

30.8 

32.3 

31.9 

31.9 

28.4 

29.156 






i4-oo 








2--00 








3+00 








4 + 00 

4 + 25 

5 + 00 




















T P. 










0.301 
(Check) 


29 457 




5- 


rOO 
-50 
-60 
-00 
-00 


1.1 
3.2 
4.1 

3.8 
5.6 
3.927 


28.4 
26.7 
25.4 
25.7 
24.9 
25.530 
(20.536) 


' Diff.' " 
006 




-j 








6- 








7- 








B. M. No. 30 


(See p. 26) 



















84. How is the velocity of flow of a stream measured? 

Velocity of flow is measured by current meters and by floats. 
The current meter is lowered into the stream and the revolutions 
of its wheel, recorded on a graduated dial, give the velocity of flow. 
When floats are used the time elapsed in moving a known distance 
down steam gives the velocity. 

•^ 85. How many parts of a plane triangle must be given to find 
the rest? 

Three parts must be given, of which one must be a side. 

86. What are similar triangles? 

Triangles that are equi-angular or whose corresponding sides 
are proportional. 



v 87. (a) What is the difference between an inch and a tenth ? 
(h) What between a sq. yd. and 3 sq. ft.? 

(a) One-tenth = 1.2 in. The difference between 0.1 ft. and 
1 in. is therefore 0.2 in., or, .Olf ft. 

(h) 1 sq. yd. = 9 sq. ft. Difference is therefore 9 — 3 = 6 sq. ft, 

^/ 88. What portion of an inch is .001 of a foot? 
.012 of an inch. 



45 

/ 89. Can you calculate cubical contents in earthwork? How do 
you do it? 

Plot cross-sections of road and the grade and slope lines, pre- 
ferably on cross-section paper. 

Eind area of each cross-section either by means of planimeter, 
counting squares or by computation. 

Average successive areas and multiply by respective distances 
between them. 

Add the partial products or volumes thus obtained, for the 
total volume. If the computations have been made in feet, which is 
usually the case, divide the total volume by 27 to obtain the volume 
in cubic yards. 



y 90. A cubic foot of water contains how many gallons? Weighs 
how much? 

A cubic foot of water contains 7.48 gallons, and weighs 62.5 
lbs. 



r91. Suppose a piece of ground to have the sides parallel but 
of unequal length (in other words trapezoidal in form), how would 
you measure it and compute the area? 

To compute the area it is only necessary to measure the lengths 
of the parallel sides and the shortest or perpendicular distance 
(altitude) between them. The area = -I sum of parallel sides X 
altitude. 

But practically all four sides and the two diagonals should 
be measured. The area of the trapezoid can then be calculated 
from the known sides of the triangles. This will give a good check 
on the previous calculation. If a, h, c, are the sides of a triangle, 
and s, half their sum, area of triangle 

= V <5 (s — a) (s — I) (s — c). 



Mathe:n[atics. 

^ What is the difference between the square of t of 32 and i 
the square of 32? (Jj) Extract the square root of 25. Of, correct to 
4 places of decimals. 

[a) The square of ^ of 32 = fi x_32)2 = W^ ^ 256. 

■1 the square cf 32 = i y : 2^ = i- X 1 024 = 512. 
Difference = 512 — 256 = 256. 



46 



[h) 25.01 = 25.075. 

25.0750 (5.0074 -f- = j/25.0| 



25 

10007) .075000 
70049 



/ 



100144) 495100 
400576 



94524 



/ 

93. The perimeter of a rectangular field is 140 rods; from one 
corner to the center of the field is 25 rods, find dimensions and 
area. 

Since perimeter = 140 rods, i perimeter = 70 rods. 
Since distance from center to center = 25 rods, diagonal = 
50 rods. 

Let x = numbsr of rods in one side of rectangle, 
then 70 — x =z number of rods in other side of rectangle. 

x' -i-{70—xf = 50^ 

a? -h (4 9.10 — 140 X + x") = 2 500 
2 X- — 140 a; = 2 500 — 4 900 == — 2 400 

a:- _ 70 a; = — 1 200 
Completing square, 

^.2 _ 70 a; 4- 352 3= 35"^ — 1 200 = 1 225 — 1 200 = 26 

(^_ 35)2 = 25 

ic— 35 = d=5 

ar = 35 db 5 = 30 or 40 
Siller are therefore 30 and 40 rods, respectively. 
Area = 30 X 40 = 1 200 square rods ^ "h acres. 



94. On opposite sides of a stream 40 ft. wide stand 2 trees, 
83 ft.' and 57 ft. in height; what is the distance between the 
tops of the trees? 

The difference in elevation between the tops of the trees = 
83 — 57 = 26 ft. The perpendicular distance between trees = 40 
ft. 

We thus have a right-angled triangle the base of which is 
40 ft. and altitude 26. The hypothenuse, which is the distance be- 
tween the tops of the trees is therefore 



V 40=^ + 26' = V 1 600 + 676 = V 2 276 = 47.7 + ft. 



47 

95. A city lot cost $2 250 at $0.40 a sq. ft., the parallel sides 
were 39 ft. and 51 ft. respectively; what was the length of the 
lot? 

The area of the lot was = 2 250 -^ 0.40 = 5 625 sq. ft. 
Area = 5 625 = ^ sum of parallel sides X length 

= ^ (39 + 51) X length 

= 45 X length. 
Therefore length = ^F = 125 ft. 

^ 96. A cylindrical column of granite is 13.09 ft. in circum- 
ference and its volume is 818.125 cu. ft. What is the height of 
the column? 

Let h = the height of the column and r the base. 
The circumference = 2 7t r = 2 X 3.1416 r = 13.09 ft. 
_ 13.09 
^""2 X 3.1416 

(13 09 \ ^ 
2X3 1416 ) 
_ (13.09)- 
~4 X 3.1416 

Volume 



The height of the column = 



Area of Base 



818125 • (13-Q9)' -81S125 ,, ^ X 31^16 
^^^•^^^ ^ 4 X 3.1416 - ^^^'^^^ ^ (13.09)2 - ^^ ^*- 



97. A street a quarter of a mile long has on each side a side- 
walk 7i ft. wide; what will it cost to pave this sidewalk (both 
sides) with stones each 2 ft. 9 in. long by 1 ft. 8 in. wide and 
costing 75c? 

The length of each sidewalk = \ X 5 280 = 1 320 ft. 
Area of paving required for both sidewalks 

= 2 X 1 320 X 71 = 19 800 sq. ft. 
Area of each paving stone 

03 V 1^ — i-i V i — ^^ 

— ZjX-ia — 4 ^3 — 12 

Number of stones required = 19 800 -^- yf 

The cost of each stone being 75c., 

the entire cost of the paving = 19 800 -!- if X .75 

= 19 800 X if X f = i3 240. 

98. Two vessels sail at the same time from the same place, 
one sailing due east and the other due north at the rate of 6 
miles and 8 miles an hour, respectively. How far apart will they 
be at the end of 12 hours? 



48 

At the end of 12 hours, one vessel will have sailed 12 x 6 = 72 
miles east and the other 12 X 8 = 96 miles north. 

As they sail at right angles the distance between them at the end 
of 12 hours 



= ^/l'i + 96^ = ^/h 184 + 9 216 ^ y 14 400 = 120 miles. 
How many square yards in a graveled walk 6 feet wide, running 
around a circular fish pond whose diameter is 70 yards? 
The radius of the pond ^ i of 70 = 35 yards. 
" " of the outside of the walk = 35 + 2 = 87 yards. 
The area of walk = total area to outside perimeter of walk — area 
of pond 

= TT X 372 _ ^ X 352 = TT X (372 — 35-) =lU7t 

= 144 X 3.1416 = 452.39 sq. yds. 

100. A piece of property 500 ft. wide is to be divided into 5 
lots of unequal width. Beginning at the narrowest, each is to be 
5 ft. wider than the one before it. Find the width of the lots. 

Let X = number of feet in width of narrowest lot. 

Then x -\- 5 = " «*««*; 2d lot. 
;r+ 10 = '' *' " " 3d " 
X -{- 15= " " " " 4th" 
x-^ 20= " " " " 5th" 



5x -\- 50 = total number of feet in width of plot = 500. 
£c + 10 = 100. 

X = 100 — 10 = 90 = width of narrowest lot. 
The width of lots are therefore 90 ft., 95 ft., 100 ft., 105 ft. 
and 110 ft. 

101. What is the contents in cubic yards of retaining wall 
which has one face vertical and is 123 ft. long. One end is 18 
ft. high, base 10 ft., top 2 ft. and the other end is 12 ft. 6 in. high, 
base 7 ft. 6 in., top 2 ft. (The prismoidal formula may be used, but 
is not required.) 

Let A^ = area at one end. 

^2 = " " other end. 

A^ = "of section midway between. 

D = distance between ends = 123 ft. 
By prismoidal formula : 

Volume = [A, + ^2 f ^ A J X -|-. 

By average end area method : 

Yolvime = {A,-hA^X -^. 



49 



^^==18x^^=108. 

A^ = 12.5 X ^ "^J"^ = 59.37. 

A^ ^ 18jM?i2 X ^ = 15.25 X 5.37 = 81.97. 

By prismoidal formula : 

Vol. = (108 + 59.37 + 4 X 81.97) X ^ = 495.25 X \^ 
= 10 152.62 cu. ft. = 376.0 cu. yd. 
By average end area method : 

Vol. = 108 + 59.37 ^ ^23 ^ lo 293.5 cu. ft. = 381.2 cu. yd. 



102. A pipe 4 ft. inside diameter, running full, discharges into 
a canal 5 ft. wide with vertical sides; how deep will the water 
be in the canal? 

The depth of water will be such that the area of the wetted 
canal section will equal the inside area "of the pipe. 

Area of pipe = -^^ = | x 4^ .^ 4 X 3.1416 = 12.5664 sq. ft. 

Since the canal is 5 ft. wide and its sectional area must be 
12.5664 sq. ft., the depth of water will be 

1?^ = 2.51+ ft. 
o. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 
AND TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 

Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER 

Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN and INSPECTOR 



VOL. I. PART 111. 
LEVELER 



INDEX 



Previous Examination Papers, pp. 4 to 12. 
Typical Questions and Answers, pp. 13 to 40. 



NEV^ YORK 

The Engineering News Publishing Company 

1906 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engineering News Publishing Company 



PKEFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" which have been included 
in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical in word- 
ing with those actually given at the examinations, as copies of the 
original papers are not readily procurable, but they do embody the 
substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," the 
answers indicate in a general way only what is required of the can- 
didate, and are not intended to be perfect and complete, as reason- 
able variance of opinion may exist as to what is the best answer in 
many cases, owing to differences in interpretation of the question 
and in education and experience. 

In order to perpetuate the value of this book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing for 
the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions and 
Answers" have been interleaved, to provide space for notes, sketches 
nnd additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



LEVELEK. 



Salary, $1,200-$1,500 per annum. 



Technical. 

1. State, in their proper order, without describing them, the 
several adjustments of an engineer's level. 

2. State generally what are the two methods of adjusting the 
bubble to parallelism with the line of sight. 

3. (a) Describe the "peg" method of making this adjustment. 
(h) Which is the most exact method of making this adjust- 
ment, and why? 

4. (a) Is it possible to do correct work with an instrument out 
of adjustment? 

(h) If so, explain how it is that errors are eliminated. 

5. (a) In very exact or "precise" leveling, what would be the 
limit of length of sight you would take ? 

(h) Explain why you would adopt this limit. 

6. Describe the proper method of adjusting for "parallax" when 
using a level. 

7. (a) What are the causes of parallax? 
(h) How would they affect the adjustments? 

8. (a) An instrument being in perfect adjustment, does it sight 
a truly level line to a distant point, or does it require correction? 
If so, state how. 

(b) Describe the errors, if any. 

9. (a) M^at is the law of increase of effect due to curvature? 
(h) Assuming eight inches in a mile, how much would it be 

in 500 feet? 

10. How do cold and frost tend to cause errors in leveling? 

11. How does heat cause errors in leveling? 

12. How may sunlight cause trouble? 



13. Under what conditions or times of day are these troubles the 

least? 

14. What other difficulties or causes of error are there in leveling 
in a crowded city? 

15. Give a form of record of levels on a long street and explain 
the terms used. 

Mathematics. 

1. Divide 27 and 2 tenths by 10 and 625 thousandths. 

2. Extract the square root of .00390625. 

3. The two ends of a floor are 19 feet and 16 feet long. One side, 
perpendicular to the ends, is 28 feet long. Find the area of the floor 
and the length of the fourth side. 

4. Find the solid contents of the frustum of a cone whose alti- 
tude is 18 feet, diameters of bases being 8 feet and 6 feet. 

Experience. 

1. What is your age? 

2. (a) Have you studied in any technical school or college? If 
so, how long, and when did you graduate? 

(h) What other engineering instruction have you had? 

3. Have you served as rodman? If so, how long, and on what 
work ? 

4. What experience have you had as leveler? Give dates and 
places where work was done. 



6 
LEVELER. 



Technical. 

1. Describe briefly an engineer's level. 

2. State the adjustments of the level in their proper order. 

3. What causes are liable to alter the correctness of a level after 
it has been correctly set up ? 

4. How would you locate rod and level to avoid these ? 

5. What is the last thing a leveler should do before taking a 
sight? 

6. What instructions would you give your rodman for doing 
accurate work ? 

7. Give form of notes showing grade, cut, and fill for ten stations 
and construct profile for same. 

8. Take any two centre cuts and construct cross-section profiles 
at their stations, slopes li to 1; show your notes. 

9. What are contour lines? How constructed? 

10. What is a fair error to allow for one mile of leveling? 

11. How would you construct permanent bench marks in a city 
and how check them? 

12. Give classification of excavation and fill generally used in 
regulating and grading streets. 

13. Give estimate of monthly work done, in regulating and grad- 
ing streets, previous estimates having been given. 

14. What is refraction? Does it increase or decrease error due 
to curvature of the earth? 

15. What is error due to curvature for one mile? Give propor- 
tion for increase for more than one mile. 

16. What are the duties of a leveler? 

17. How would you get an approximate difference of elevation 
of two banks of a river 2 000 ft. wide without considering curvature 
of the earth ? 

18. Calculate by prismoidal formula the contents of a road sec- 
tion 100 ft. long of which the following are the end sections, slopes 
U to 1: 



Mathematics. 

1. Calculate the capacity of tank, in gallons, whose upper diam- 
eter is 10 ft., lower diameter 14 ft., and height 8 ft. 

2. Extract square root of 913.132754. 

3. Divide 0.003172 by 3.1724. 

4. Calculate volume of prismoid 30 ft. X ^ ft. X 100 ft. high. 

5. Calculate volume of wedge with same dimensions as preceding 
question. 

6. Given a retaining wall whose height is 20 ft., batter on front 
face IJ in. per foot, offsets on rear face 6 in. in every 5 ft., width of 
top 2 ft., length 50 ft. Find contents in cu. yds. 



8 

PROMOTION EXAMINATION LEVELER. 

1. (a) What is your age? (h) Have you had any teclinical edu- 
cation at an engineering school or elsewhere, and, if so, what? (c) 
What practical experience have you had to fit you for the position of 
leveler? State this clearly and give dates. 

2. Describe carefully the adjustments of an engineer's level in 
their proper order. 

3. (a) What would be the longest sight you would think it desir- 
able to take in doing very careful work? (&) Give your reasons for 
so limiting the length. 

4. (a) How far does the line sighted by a level depart from a 
true level at the end of the first mile; or, in other words, what is 
the amount of the earth's curvature for a mile? (h) Does curvature 
make a point sighted on appear too high or too low? 

5. (a) Describe what is meant by refraction, (h) Which of the 
two has the greater effect upon the correctness of levels, curvature 
or refraction? 

6. In practice how are errors from curvature and refraction 
eliminated ? 

7. (a) What is parallax? (h) How may it cause errors in 
leveling ? 

8. (a) In leveling up or adjusting an instrument, how should all 
screws be left as to tightness? (h) What is the reason for this? 

9. (a) What considerations govern the selection of a point at 
which to set up a level, in taking a line of levels ? Describe carefully 
the setting up in the best way. 

10. What natural causes may affect the accuracy of levels and 
must therefore be guarded against? 

11. In taking a careful sight, state every precaution to be 
observed from beginning to end to insure -accuracy. 

12. What errors may be caused by carelessness or inexperience of 
a rodman? 

13. If obliged to set your level on marshy or unstable gi'ound, 
how can you get good results? 

14. Divide 17.0965 by 209.07. 

15. Extract the square root of 46027.009. 



PEOMOTION EXAMINATION LEVELER— PRES. BORO. 

B'KLYN. 

Nov. 2, 1905. 

1-3. Demonstrate your ability to write a clear, concise statement 
and your fitness for promotion by a suitable statement of your age, 
education and experience. 

4. Assume a line of levels with the following distances between 
the T. P.'s: B. S. 150 ft., E. S., 250 ft.; B. S. 200 ft., E. S., 300 ft; 
B. S. 600 ft, E. S. 250 ft; B. S. 150 ft, E. S. 200 ft; B. S. 100 ft., 
E. S. 200 ft. Is the correctness of the last elevation affected? Give 
reasons 

5. Explain fully how the grade of a brick sewer is given by a 
leveler and how given by the foreman. 

6. What is parallax ? Wliat causes it and how is it avoided ? 

7. What is radiation and how is its influence minimized? 

8. Describe the method of setting slope stakes. 

9. What instructions would you give your rodman to insure 
proper holding of the rod, setting of target and accurate reading?. 

10. Assume you had to use transit with bubble tube on telescope 
for leveling; how would you adjust it so it could be used for 
leveling ? 

11. If the combined effect of curvature and refraction is 229 ft., 
in 20 miles, what is it in 10 miles? (Show calculations.) 

12. Show level notes for the centre line of a highway over irreg- 
ular ground for a distance of 1 500 ft., including crossing a stream 
and intersecting another highway. 

13. Draw a profile of 700 feet of the line in Ques. No. 12 to 
approximate scale showing grade line and other usual information. 

14. (a) Eind area of a right-angled triangle of which base is 
43 ft. and hypothenuse is 67 ft. 

(b) Eind area of triangle of which sides are 20 ft, 30 ft., and 
40 ft. 

15. Explain clearly "reciprocal" leveling. 



10 

PROMOTION EXAMINATIOX TO LEVELER. 

May, 1904. 

1. (a) What is your age? (h) Your education? (c) Experi- 
ence ? 

2. (a) What is the line of collimation ? (b) What is the adjust- 
ment for the line of collimation ? 

3. What other adjustment (if any) is made for the crosshair? 

4. (a) Give an adjustment necessary for the bubble on the Engi- 
neer's level, (h) Do you consider this the best method; why? 

5. What other adjustment is there for the bubble? 

6. (a) When the level is adjusted, is it safe to trust the accuracy 
of the instrument for a long time? (h) How may the length of 
sights be chosen to eliminate errors? Explain fully. 

T. What precautions should be taken to prevent the rod and 
target from slipping? 

8. What precaution should a leveler take to guard against the 
rodman misunderstanding his signals ? 

9. (a) What do you understand by curvature and refraction? 
(h) How will they influence the rod readings in a sight of x feet? 
(c) Which is the greater and what is their ratio? 

10. After setting up the level, what disturbing influences are 
liable to afl'ect it ? How should the leveler guard against them ? 

11. How does the leveler know if the rodman holds the rod 
plumb ? 

12. (a) Why is it not good to take long sights in accurate level- 
ing? (h) What do you consider the limits in such work? 

13. 14 and 15. Figure the material to be excavated in a road sec- 
tion 100 ft. long, the ends having the dimensions given in sketch, 
slope of the embankment being 1^ horizontal to 1 vertical. 



11 

LEYELEE. 

Dec. 22, 1904. 
Technical. 

1. (a) What is parallax in a level? (h) What are the two 
causes of parallax and how are they overcome? 

2. Describe the adjustment of the line of collimation on an engi- 
neer's level. 

' 3. (a) Describe the method of adjusting the bubble on an engi- 
neer's level by reversion, (h) What instrumental imperfection may 
make this method inaccurate ? 

4. Describe a method of adjusting on an engineer's level by use 
of the pegs. 

5. Can a bubble be correctly adjusted by the peg method before 
the line of collimation is adjusted? Give your reasons. 

6. (a) In very accurate leveling what would be the longest sight 
you would think it best to take? (h) Give two or more reasons for 
this. 

7. Aside from the apparent "dancing-" of the target caused by 
radiation of the heat from the earthy state in what other ways the 
sun affects the work of the leveler. 

8. State clearly what errors in leveling are eliminated by keeping 
the lengths of the backsights and foresights equal. 

9. Describe the operation of carrying a line of levels across a 
deep stream, says 1 500 feet wide, with reasonable accuracy. 

10. (a) Where a roadway is to have slopes on each side of one 
iind a half horizontal to one vertical, the cuts on the centre line 
stakes being given, describe the operation of setting slope stakes for 
the contractor, (h) Show the form of the notes you would keep as 
you lay out the work. 

11. In what distance does the error in elevation of the target due 
to curvature of the earth amount to .001 of a foot ? Give figures of 
the computation. 

12. Suppose the leveler to have taken an accurate sight of the 
target, what may happen to cause a wrong elevation of the target to 
be recorded? 

13. Give all the reasons for sighting the target again after 
giving the signal all right to the rodman. 



12 

14. (a) How do you fix the grades for a sewer? (h) What is 
the greatest distance that should exist between grade marks where 
the grade is very flat? Why is this? 

15. In an extensive rock cutting how would the work be laid out, 
and how would the quantities for a monthly estimate of the work 
done be obtained? 

Give an example of notes taken in the case of a deep rock cut 700 
ft. by 80 ft. for a street. 

Mathematics. 
Give all the figuring on ruled sheets. 

1. A lot of ground is 97 ft. 4.5- inches long and 24 ft. 7§ inches 
wide. How many square feet are there in the lot? Do all the 
work by decimals. 

2. The rise of a street in a distance of 5 763 ft. is 12.967 ft. 
What is the percentage of the grade ? 

3. The section across the embankment made in building a road 
is as follows: Width at top or road bed, 40 ft.; slopes of embank- 
ment at each side, one and a half horizontal to one vertical. Left 
hand slope stake 10 ft. below roadbed; left hand angle point or 
beginning of slope, 8i ft. below ; centre point 8 ft. below ; right angle 
point 9i feet below ; right slope stake 8| ft. below. What is the area 
of the section? Make a sketch and give all figures. 

4. The original surface of a road is a rapid rise, being uniform, 
and the surface of the cross sections are level and slopes li to 1. 
Cut at one end is 3 ft.; width at bottom 40 ft. and at top 49 
ft. At the other end the cut is 7 ft. with width at bottom of 40 ft. 
and top 61 ft. The length between the sections is 100 ft. Compute 
by the prismoidal formula the contents in cubic yards. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINBERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICESOF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 



LEVELER. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



14 



LEVELEK. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

1. Wliat are the duties and requirements of a leveler? 

A leveler is required to run the level, take charge of the party 
and direct the work for levels, profiles, contours, cross-sections, 
grades on construction, etc. He should keep notes of same in a neat 
and legible manner, and should do rapid and accurate work. 

He should see that the instruments are kept in good condition 
and in proper adjustment. He should thoroughly understand the 
principles of leveling, be familiar with all sources of error and avoid 
them as much as possible. He should be able to use logarithms, 
trigonometric functions, compute elevations, cuts, fills, grades, earth- 
work quantities, etc. 

He is expected to take the place of the transitman in the latter's 
absence. 

2. Eor what different purposes are engineers' levels used? 

They are used for running levels and establishing bench marks, 
obtaining profiles, grades, contours, cross sections, setting grade and 
slope stakes, and giving elevations on construction. 

3. What kind of level would you use for rough, rapid work? 
A Locke or hand level. 




4. Wliat kind of level for accurate work? Describe it briefly. 

For accurate work use an engineer's level. An engineer's or 
'TT" level consists of a horizontal telescopic line of sight attached to 
a spirit level, and revolving about a vertical axis, the whole being 
properly supported and mounted on a tripod. The telescope can be 
lifted out of its supports, called the T's, and reversed end for end. 
Leveling screws are provided to bring the bubble to the centre, and 
clamps and tangent motions to set and keep the telescope in a fixed 
position. Adjusting screws are provided for the cross-hairs, bubble 
tube and the T's. 



16 

5. Describe the engineer's transit and name the adjustments. 
FIG.1. 







' Engineer's Transit. 

The transit is a telescopic line of sight which may be revolved 
in vertical and horizontal planes about axes provided for the pur- 
pose, the whole properly supported and mounted on a tripod. The 
angular movement of the line of sight is indicated on graduated 
horizontal and vertical limbs. By means of leveling screws, the 
axes are brought to their proper positions. Clamp and tangent 
screws to set and hold the line of sight in any position are pro- 
vided, as well as adjusting screws for the various parts. The adjust- 
ments which are usually made are : 

Adjustment for parallax. 

To make plate bubbles perpendicular to the vertical axis of the 
instrument. 

To make the line of sight perpendicular .to the horizontal axis. 

To make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis. 

To make the axis of the attached bubble tube parallel to the line 
of coUimation (for leveling). 



6. Explain distinctly and briefly the operation of leveling. 

The object of leveling is to obtain elevations of points referred 
to some known or assumed datum. This is attained by using an 
instrument (called a level), whose line of sight revolves in a hori- 
zontal plane, the elevation of which is called the height of in- 
strument or H. I. Readings are taken on a graduated rod held ver- 



17 



tically on the points. These readings show the vertical distance of 
the bottom of the rod above or below the height of the instrument. 
The H. I. is obtained by adding the rod reading (called the 
backsight or B. S.), taken on a point to the known elevation of the 
point. The elevation of any point is obtained by subtracting the 
rod reading (called the foresight or F. S.) taken upon it, from 
the H. I. 




'B.M.NoJ. 



LeveJ Line from B.M.NoJ. 



7. (a) What is the line of collimation? 
nient for the line of collimation? 



(/>) What is the adjust- 



ia) The line of collimation is the true position of the line of 
sight. It is the line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs (when 
in perfect adjustment) and the principal point of the objective. 

(5) For adjustment of line of collimation see Q. No. 15. 

8. What do you understand by parallax in taking a sight, and 
how is it overcome? 

Parallax is the apparent motion of the cross-hairs about the 
image of the object sighted at, as the eye is moved behind the eye- 
piece, and is due to lack of coincidence of cross-hairs and image. It 
is overcome by focusing the eye-piece on the cross-hairs so that they 
appear most distinct, and by bringing the in\age into focus by means 
of the objective. 



9. Name two causes of parallax. 

1. Imperfect focusing of eye-piece on the cross-hairs. 

2. Imperfect focusing of objective on the object sighted at. 
also Q. No. 8. 



See 



10. Describe the proper method of adjusting for parallax when 
using a level. 

Throw objective out of focus or direct telescope to the sky. Move 
eye-piece in and out, finding limits for distinct vision of cross-hairs, 
and set it at mean position. Then bring image into focus by means 
of the objective. Test adjustment by shifting the eye behind the 
eye-piece, observing whether there is any apparent movement of 
cross-hairs about the image. 



18 

11. (a) Is a first-class level in perfect adjustment? (h) What 
causes tend to throw a level out of adjustment? 

(a) No, not in perfect adjustment. It may or may not be in 
sufficiently good adjustment for use. 

(h) The adjustments are "thrown out" by jarring, improper or 
careless handling, temperature changes, wear, strain and looseness 
of adjusting screws, etc. 

12. How do you tell when a level is out of adjustment? Are 
special trials necessary, and when should they be made? 

The condition of the adjustment of the level can usually be told 
and tested during the course of the work. If the bar or bubble tube 
is out of adjustment the bubble will not remain in centre as tele- 
scope is revolved. If elevations are taken on two points, first with 
equal sights and then with very unequal sights, any appreciable 
error in the adjustments will become apparent. 

It is advisable to test the adjustments on starting a level run, 
and where great accuracy is required they should be specially tested 
at least once a week. In ordinary work special trials are not neces- 
sary, as the leveler can usually tell by the behavior of the instru- 
ment when it requires adjustment. 

13. State in order of their importance the adjustments of the 
engineer's level. 

1. Adjustment for Parallax.* 

2. Adjustment of Cross-Hairs. — To make the line of sight coin- 
cide with the axis of the telescope, so that the intersection of the 
hairs will remain on a fixed point as the telescope is revolved in 
the Y's. 

3. Adjustment of the Attached Level. — To make the axis of the 
level tube parallel to the line of sight, so that the bubble will remain 
in centre when telescope is reversed end for end in the Y's. 

4. Adjustment of the Y's or Telescope Supports. — To make the 
axis of the pivot rings revolve in a horizontal plane, so that the 
bubble will remain in the centre in all positions of the telescope. 

14. How would you make them? Describe briefly. 

For the *' Parallax " adjustment see Question No. 10. 
For the " Collimation " adjustment see Question No. 15. 

f No. 17. 5 ^^J"f 
For the " Bubble " adjustment see Question J < metnoa. 

For the '' Y " adjustment see Question No. 21. 
♦While Parallax is termed an adjustment, it is not one in the sense of the others. 



19 

15. How would you adjust the line of collimation? 

Set up level about 20 ft. from a building or other stationary 
object. Level up and sight on a fixed point. Clamp instrument and 
open clips. Kotate telescope in Y's, observing whether intersection 
of cross-hairs remains on point. If not, observe the extreme move- 
ment of the wires and bring them half way back. Test the adjust- 
ment and repeat if necessary. 

Note. — ^In the inverting instrument the intersection of cross- 
hairs must be moved in a direction opposite to the apparent. 

16. State the two methods of adjusting the bubble to parallelism 
with "line of sight." 

1. Adjust bubble by reversing the telescope in the Ys. 

2. By the peg method. 

17. {a) Describe reversal method of adjusting bubbles. (&) 
What other test should be made to secure parallelism of the bubble 
to the line of sight? 

(a) Set instrument in shady place free from wind and other 
disturbances. Level up. Bring telescope parallel to one set of 
screws and clamp. Open clips. Lift telescope carefully out of Y's; 
reverse end to end and replace gently in Y's. Observe if bubble 
remains in centre. If not, correct half by the leveling screws and 
half by adjusting screws on bubble tube. Repeat adjustment if nec- 
essary. 

(h) The bubble should also be tested to see that its axis and the 
line of sight are in the same vertical plane. This is effected by 
opening clips, turning telescope slightly in Y's and observing whether 
bubble remains in centre. If it does not it can be adjusted by 
means of the screws on the sides of the bubble tube. 

18. Describe the peg method of adjusting the bubble in detail. 

Set up instrument on fairly level ground. Drive two stakes 
firmly about two hundred ft. on either side of instrument, setting 
their tops at the same elevation. As the B. S. and F. S. are equal, 
the errors of adjustment are eliminated. Now set the instrument 
about 10 to 15 ft. beyond one of the points and about on line with 
them. Set the target, holding the rod on near point; then with 
target unchanged hold on far point. Bring cross-hairs on target 
by means of the leveling screws and bring the bubble to the centre 
by means of the adjusting screws. The bubble axis is then parallel 
to the line of sight. Test the adjustment by checking the elevation 
of the stake. 



20 

19. Which is the most exact way and why? 

The peg method is the most exact, as the bubble is adjusted to 
an accurately established horizontal line, whereas in the reversal 
method it is assumed that the axis of pivot rings and telescope are 
parallel; which may or may not bo true. 

20. Can the bubble be correctly adjusted by the peg method 
before the line of collimation is adjusted? Give your reasons. 

The bubble can be adjusted to the line of sight by the peg- 
method and correct results obtained, but the line of sight must not 
then be distrubed, as its parallelism with the bubble axis will thus 
be destroyed. This parallelism is the object of the peg method. 

21. If the bubble does not remain in the centre as the telescope 
is revolved, what adjustment is necessary and how is it made ? 

The Y or horizontal bar adjustment must be made. Level up the 
instrument. Bring the telescope parallel to one set of leveling 
screws; reverse telescope 180° about vertical axis. Observe the 
amount of movement of the bubble from the centre. Correct one- 
half by means of the leveling screws and the other by means of the 
adjusting screws on the Y's or bar. Test and repeat if necessary. 

22. In leveling up or adjusting an instrument how should all 
screws be left as to tightness ? "Wliat is the reason for this ? 

The screws should be left snug, but not tight enough to bind or 
spring the parts. They must be snug to prevent movement affecting 
the accuracy of the work. If made too tight the parts are liable to 
excessive wear and injury. 

23. Is it possible to do correct work with an instrument out of 
adjustment? If so, explain how. 

Yes. By taking equal back and foresights errors are eliminated. 
(See Q. No. 50.) 

24. State clearly what errors in leveling are eliminated by keep- 
ing backsights and foresights equal. 

The following errors are eliminated: 

Errors due to imperfect adjustments. 
" " " curvature of the earth. 

" " refraction. 

25. How would you locate permanent bench marks in a city and 
how vvould you check them ? 



n 



Permanent bench marks should be located at accessible points 
on stable foundations, where they are likely to remain undisturbed 
tor a considerable period of time, such as — on water tables, area 
copings or stone steps, etc., of permanent bviildings. They should 
be indicated by suitable marks cut in the stone in places where 
the rod can be freely rotated and held vertically without inter- 
ference from projections. They should be carefully described, a 
sketch showing the exact location supplementing the description 
where necessary. They are checked by running accurate lines of 
levels from other established bench marks to the new bench. These 
runs or circuits are combined and adjusted and the resulting eleva- 
tions of the new B. M. averaged. 

26. In the operation of leveling how are the sights or readings 
taken on B. M.'s and T. P.'s desigiiated, and how used in determin- 
ing difference in level? 

Sights on B. M.'s and T. P.'s are called backsights and fore- 
sights. 

A backsight is a rod reading taken on a point whose elevation is 
known. This reading when added to the known elevation gives 
the H. I. 

A foresight is a rod reading taken on a point whose elevation is 
to be determined. This reading when subtracted from the H. I. 
gives the desired elevation. 

27. Describe all the steps in the field work of taking a line of 
levels over difficult ground, in such a way as to eliminate as far as 
])ossible errors of every nature and for every cause whatever. 

It is best to select a time when atmospheric conditions are favor- 
able, such as calm, cloudy day. Test the adjustments of the level. 
Set up in firm ground, within 250 ft. from starting point. Level 
up. Take a very careful rod reading (backsight) on the bench, the 
rod being held perfectly plumb on the point. Signal the rodman to 
set and clamp the target. Check the setting. The rodman then 
removes the rod carefully from the point, reads it, and records the 
reading, and proceeds to the leveler, who checks the rod. The rod- 
man then selects and holds the rod on a T. P. not apt to be dis- 
turbed between the two set-ups, and at about the same distance from 
the instrument as' the B. M. This T. P. may be a point on natural 
rock or top of pin driven into the ground for the purpose, or other 
suitable point. Take a rod reading (foresight) on this new point, 
check, read and record as before. Move the level ahead, check the 
''rod," and set up in advance of T. P. at a distance determined by 
the topography (not exceeding 300 feet, however, for accurate 
work), and proceed as before. 



To eliminate all errors, observe following precautions: 

That there is no instrumental parallax. 

That the instrument is in good adjustment. 

That the instrument does not settle. 

That the bubble is in center at setting of target. 

That the instrument is free from disturbing influences, such as 
sun, wind and jar, etc. 

That the rodman holds on the right points. 

That turning points are good and firm. 

That the rod is held plumb and when extended target properly- 
set, the shortest reading being taken. 

28. What considerations govern the selection of a point at which 
to set up a level in taking a line of levels? Describe carefully the 
setting up in the best way. 

The selection of the point is governed by the direction in which 
the work is progressing (whether up or down hill), the slope and 
character of the ground, obstructions to the line of sight, condition 
of the atmosphere, degree of accuracy of the work required, nature 
of the work, number of elevations to be taken from the set-up. 

Select a point from which the T. P. is visible and about the right 
height, convenient for the next set-up, and which will afford the 
desired number of unobstructed sights. Set the legs firmly in the 
ground, the head being approximately level and bring one pair of 
leveling screws on line with the backsight. Observe if instrument 
is at proper height. If so, level up accurately. 

29. If obliged to set your level on unstable or marshy ground, 
how can you get good results? 

Set the legs as deep in the ground as convenience for sighting 
will permit, and surround them with heavy stones or stakes until 
they are firm, or set them on plank or board firmly imbedded in 
ground. Lest the instrument be disturbed, there should be as little 
moving about by the observer as possible.' The bubble should be 
carefully watched, and before and after a turning point is set ahead 
check readings should be taken on the backsight. 

30. Will two persons who take the same reading of a transit after 
setting it always make it the same; if not, why? 

No. Because no two persons have the same power of observation. 
This is usually referred to as the "personal equation" of the ob- 
server. 

This may cause a difference in bisecting the point sighted on, 
in setting the vernier on zero, in reading the angles, etc. 



31. State all the precautions a leveler must take in doing accurate 
work. 

He should Supervise the selection of turning points and observe 
that the rodman holds, reads and handles the rod properly. He 
should have rod readings on T, P.'s checked and frequently check on 
points of known elevation. He should keep the instruments in good 
adjustment and see that it is properly handled in carrying, etc. In 
setting the target he should be sure that the rod is plumb, the 
target clamped, the bubble in the centre, before he signals the final 
O. K. He must always set his instruments up firmly, avoid wind 
and sun as much as possible. He must be sure of his starting B. M., 
keep the rod readings in the proper columns and have the rodman 
keep separate notes of the rod readings on the T. P.'s as a check 
upon his work. 

32. Under what conditions and times are the atmospheric errors 
least ? 

Atmospheric errors are least on a cloudy day, when the air is 
clear and quiet. The best time of day for leveling is between 9-11 
and 2-4, at which times disturbances due to the sun and refraction 
are least. 



33. How do cold and frost tend to produce errors in leveling? 

If the instrument is set up on frosty ground settlement occurs 
when the ground thaws, making it difficult to do accurate work. 

34. What difficulties and errors are there in leveling in a crowded 
city ? 

Constant vibration of instrument due to traffic. Interference 
with line of sight by traffic, pedestrians and obstructions. 

Danger of instrument being run into, obscure light, dust, etc., 
rendering long sights impossible. 

It is more difficult to secure firm set-ups on stone pavements of 
crowded city than in open country. 

35. What is radiation, and how is its effect minimized ? 

Radiation is the apparent vibration or "dancing" of the rod 
caused by currents of heated air which rise from the surface of the 
ground. The effect is minimized by taking the readings as high on 
the rod as possible and doing the work between the hours of 10 p. m. 
and 4 p. m., or on cloudy days, at which times these disturbances are 
the least. 



24 

36. (a) What should a leveler always do before setting up? (h) 
What before finally leveling up? (c) What before signalling O. K. 
finally ? 

(a) Before setting up he should look about and select the most 
favorable location. (See Question No. 28.) 

(b) He should observe that he is neither too high nor too low. 

(c) He should see that the bubble is in centre. 



37. What is the last thing the leveler should do before taking 
a sight? 

Observe that the bubble is in the centre. 



38. What instructions would you give your rodman to insure 
proper holding of the rod setting the target and accurate reading? 

The rodman should be instructed — 

To be sure of his T. P. 

To hold the rod as steadily and as "plumb" as possible, balancing 
it between his fingers or observing rod levels. 

To be sure that the turning point and bottom of the rod are 
clean and that there is no interference by limbs or obstructions. 

To watch the leveler, move the target up or down as directed, 
and clamp snugly at the proper signal. 

For very accurate work, to hold again on the point, sway the rod 
to and from the instrument and, if necessary, to move the target 
carefully as directed and clamp at the proper signal. 

To repeat this operation until finally signalled O. K. 

To remove the rod carefully from the point, read it and record 
the reading, give the leveler another sight to make sure that the 
target has not slipped, and then to have the reading checked. 

In the case of a long rod, to be sure that the target is properly 
set, that it does not slip, to have the setting checked after reading 
and then have the target and reading checked. 

39. Suppose you had set target accurately, why should you again 
check sight ? WTiat errors are likely to occur in setting target ? 

The target and the rod, if extended, are both liable to slip. It is 
therefore necessary to check it after clamping. 

If the instrument is provided with three wires a common error is 
made by setting the target on the wrong wire. 

The rod may not be held plumb or the bubble may not be 
exactly in the centre. There may be parallax and air tremor. In all 
these cases errors may arise in setting the target. 



26 

•iO. What precaution should a leveler take to guard against the 
rodman misunderstanding his signals ? 

He should take a check reading after each setting of the target, 
and have the rodman sway the rod to and from the instrument, to 
obtain the smallest reading. 

41. How does the leveler know if the rodman holds the rod 
plumb ? 

By means of vertical cross-hair the leveler can tell whether 
rod is plumb in one direction. To be sure that rod is plumb in the 
other he has the rod swayed gently to and from the instrument, and 
notes the smallest reading. 

42. (a) In locating a T. P. for leveling upon, what should guide 
the rodman? 

The rodman should be guided by the direction in which the 
work is progressing. He must see that the rod will be visible to the 
leveler, solid, and permit a good set-up when the level is carried 
ahead. In leveling down hill he should select the point as low as 
possible, and in working up hill he should select it as high as pos- 
sible, consistent with proper lengths of sights. The rod must rotate 
freely on the point. If possible he should select his T. P.'s so that 
the fore and back sights will be equal. 

43. Aside from the position of a turning point, is there any 
care necessary as to its stability, form, etc.? State in detail. 

A turning point should be firm, solid and not likely to be dis- 
turbed between the two set-ups of the instrument. They should be 
pointed or rounded, so that the rod can rotate freely on them. 

44. What is the difference between "refraction" and "reflection" 
as applied to light, and how does the former affect the line of sight 
taken through a level? Discuss the combined effect of curvature 
and refraction in leveling. 

"Refraction" is the bending or defieciion which rays of light 
experience in passing through media of varying densities, such as 
from air to water, or through layers of air of varying temperature 
and humidity. 

"Reflection" is the rehound which rays of light experience on 
striking any surface; when the surface is polished the rebound or 
reflection is most pronounced and follows regular laws. 

In sighting through a level, refraction (due to the atmosphere) 
causes an apparent raising of the rod, making it appear higher than 



26 

it really is. The correction is therefore minus. The amount varies 
with the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere, winds, time 
of day and distance of rod from level. It is greatest after sunrise 
and before sunset and least between 10 a. m. and 4 p. m. As an 
average, the error due to refraction is 1/7 of the error due to curva- 
ture of earth's surface, reducing the latter from 8 in. in one mile to 
6.86 in. in one mile. It is, therefore, about 1.14 inches in 1 mile. 

The increase in the error, both for "curvature" and "refraction," 
is, as the square of the distance, being 4 times as much as 2 miles, 
9 times as much for 3 miles, etc. 

That is 
Correction for curvature 

(to be added) = 8 inches X (Dist. in Miles)^. 
Correction for refraction 

(to be subtracted) = 1.14 " X ( " " " f- 

Combined correction for 

both (to be added) = 6.86 " X ( " " " f. 

In running levels with unequal back and fore sights the correc- 
tion is to be added to the final elevation when sum of the fore- 
sights (distances) exceeds the sum of the backsights (distances), 
and subtracted when the sum of the backsights is in excess. The 
distance for which the correction is to be applied is always the differ- 
ence between the above sums. 




D/fference^ \ Horizon-f-a/ Line ofSiqht Le\^e/ 

due fo m ^ ^ ~ SZZ—-—-'^--^^ —= =-- -=1^ 

Cur..furem^\^-" A, 

Leye/Jfocf-Ai l"K.« . 0_L_ 



-i^ce of ^^" 

45. (a) What is refraction when referred to leveling? 

{])) Does it increase or decrease error due to curvature of earth? 
(c) What is the error due to curvature in one mile? 

(a) Refraction is the apparent raising of the rod due to bending 
of the rays of light coming from the rod to the instrument. See 
Question 44. 

{!)) It decreases the error due to curvature by 1/7 of the latter. 

(c) The error due to curvature is 8 in. in 1 mile and is propor- 
tional to the square of the distance. 

46. An instrument in perfect adjustment, does it sight a truly 
level line to a distant object, or does it require correction; if so, 
how? Describe the errors, if any. 

The instrument sights a horizontal, and not a level, line. It 
requires correction for curvature of the earth and refraction due 
to the atmosphere by adding eight inches in one mile for the former 



27 

and subtracting 1 1/7 inches for the latter. The curvature causes 
a larger rod reading, while refraction causes a smaller. 

For other distances the corrections vary as the squares of the 
distances. 

47. What is the law of increase of effect due to curvature ? How 
much in 500 ft. ? 

Error due to curvature is 8 in. in 1 mile, and increases as the 
square of the distance in miles. 

For 500 ft. curvature correction = 8" X (4^) " = • 

^5280/ 

= 8" X .009 = 0.072". 
= .006 of a foot. 

48. If the combined effect of curvature and refraction is 229 ft. 
in 20 miles, what is it in 10 miles? (Show calculation.) 

The error due to curvature and refraction varies as the square 

of the distance ; therefore : 

Error in 10 miles : error 20 miles : : 10^ : 20^ 

X : 229' : : 100 : 400 

229 X 100 .7 on, 

X = =5^.25' 

400 

49. Assume a line of levels with the following distances between 
theT. P.'s: 

B. S. 150 ft., F. S. 250 ft.; B. S. 200 ft., F. S. 300; B. S. 600, F. 
S. 250; B. S. 150; F. S. 200; B. S. 100; F. S. 200. 

Is the correctness of the last elevation affected? Give reasons. 

The elevation of the last point will not be affected, because the 
sum of the backsight distances (150 ft. + 200 + 600 + 150 + 100 
=1 200) is equal to the sum of the foresight distances (250 + 300 
4- 250 + 200 +200 =. 1 200 ft.). The total error due to imperfect 
adjustments and to curvature and refraction will thus be the same 
for the foresights and for the backsights, but of opposite sign, and 
will therefore balance. 

50. At what distance is the error in curvature == .001 ft. ? 

At 1 mile or 5 280 ft. error = 8 in. or 0.67 ft. The error varies 
as square of distance. Hence the required distance x is found from 
the equation: 

x^ ^ .001 
52802 0670 

^2 ^ 5280^ X .001 ^ 4^iQiQ,, ^ ^ 204'±. 
0.67 



28 

51. What are the minimum and maximum lengths of sights you 
would take, and why, for fairly accurate work? 

(a) For fair work sights from 15 to 600 may be taken. The in- 
strument cannot be focused at less than 10 ft. and at 600 ft. the 
signals of leveler become indistinct to the rodman and the setting 
of the target doubtful. 

52. For very exact work or precise leveling, what would be the 
limit of length of sight you would take? Why? 

300 ft., except under special conditions, such as in crossing a 
I'iver; because at a greater distance the target cannot be set accur- 
ately to thousandths; slight variations in the bubble produce con- 
siderable errors in long sights. The longer the sight the more 
liability to error due to atmospheric conditions. 

53. Explain clearly what is meant by "reciprocal" leveling. 

"Reciprocal'' leveling is the operation of finding the difference 
in elevation between points a considerable distance apart, where for 
any reason the territory between is inaccessible, rendering the ordi- 
nary method impracticable. It is resorted to where it is neces- 
sary to transfer levels across a wide river or ravine. The instru- 
ment is set alternately on both sides of the river and a number of 
readings taken on the two points whose difference in elevation ia 
nought. These differences in elevation observed from both sides are 
combined and averaged. The method of procedure is more fully 
■explained in the following question. 

54. If you had to cross a river 1 500 feet wide, how would you 
do it to get accurate results? 

Select a day when conditions are favorable for good work, such 
as a clear, calm and cloudy day, and take the observations when 
the disturbances due to radiation and refraction are least — from 
f> to 11 A. M. or from 2 to 4 P. M. 

Test the adjustments of the instrument and perfect them if 
necessary. 

Provide two first-class New York rods fitted with special targets 
for long sights and alike in all respect. 

Select or fix suitable bench marks on each side of the river. 

Set up the level a short distance (15 ft.) behind one of the points 
and about on line with them, the rodmen meanwhile proceeding to 
give sights (one on each side of river). 

Level up carefully, take the observation on each rod, noting that 
the bubble is exactly in centre at the final sight, that the targets are 



29 



set on shortest readings, and taking other usual precautions for 
accurate work. 

The readings are then recorded and checked and the operation 
repeated several times, obtaining a series of differences in elevation 
(which should closely check). These differences are averaged. 

The instrument is then carried to opposite bank of river and 
operation repeated, obtaining a second set of differences in elevation- 
Average the mean differences obtained from the two sets of obser- 
vations and the result ought to give very closely the correct differ- 
ence of elevation of the two bench marks, errors due to curvature, 
refraction being thereby eliminated as shown below. 



Let A and B be two bench marks, one on each side of river. 
With level at C determine difference in elevation between A and B. 
Do the same with level at D, making A C = B D. Let E' and E'' 
be the absolute elevations of A and B, then 

d = E' — E", the true difference in elevation. 

Let ?'j be the combined correction for curvature and refraction 
for A D ^ C B and r the correction for A C = B D. 

The difference obtained by the instrument at C is 

d' = (E' — rj — (E'' — r.J (1) 

With instrument at D, the difference is 

J" = (E' — rj — (W — r^) (2> 

Adding (1) and (2) and dividing by 2 we have 

d' + d" 
d — —^ — = E' — E" 

The corrections for curvature and refraction are thus eliminated 
by taking the average differences in elevation. 

55. Wliat errors would you expect in running a mile of B. M- 
levels (a) in a crowded street? (&) in the open? 

(a) .04 in a mile. 
{h) .02 in a mile. 



30 
56. What proportions for other distances? 



Multiply the above errors by V^istance in miles. Thus, for 4 
miles it would be .04 V^? or .08. 

57. In running profile, cross -section, or contour levels (a) how 
close would you expect to check on bench marks? (h) How close 
would you read' on other stakes ? 

(a) Within a tenth. 

(h) To the nearest tenth. 

58. How close do you consider it necessary to read the rod on 
turning points (a) in good work? (h) in very accurate work? 

(a) lOOths. 
(h) lOOOths. 

59. What is meant by the datum in leveling? 

A datum is a level surface, assumed or actual, to which elevation 
of other points are referred. 

60. What is a grade line? 

A grade line is the line of intersection of a vertical plane 
(usually through the centre line) and the finished surface of a road, 
railroad, etc. It shows the rate of rise or fall and is usually 
expressed in feet per 100. 

61. What are contour lines? How are they constructed? 

Contour lines are lines passing through points on the surface of 
the earth, all of which are at the same elevation. A contour may 
also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with 
the earth's surface. 

Three methods are commonly employed to locate contours. 

1. By the Stadia. 

The location and elevations of all high and low points, in the 
area to be mapped, tops of ridges, bottoms of hollows, and points at 
changes of slope, are obtained by means of the transit and stadia, 
and plotted on the map. The contours are then interpolated be- 
tween the points thus plotted. 

2. By the Plane Table. 

The contours are followed on the ground by means of a level and 
rod, and the location of all points where there are changes in direc- 



31 

tion are plotted directly on the sheet. If the ground is too steep the 
contours may be interpolated between the controlling points plotted 
on the sheet. 

3. By Cross- Sectioning. 

The area to be mapped is "gridironed" or divided up into squares 
of convenient size (as 100 ft.). Elevations are taken at each corner 
and intermediates where there are changes of slope. These points 
are plotted and the contours then interpolated between them. 

62. Suppose you have to set a very flat grade for a sewer, (a) 
how would you go about it? (h) How far apart would you set grade 
points? (c) Why? 

(a) Establish bench marks along the line of work. On centre 
line, if possible, or on offset line, fasten cleats two or three ft. in 
length to the horizontal braces across trench. Upon the cleats marks 
are made, a given number of feet above the invert or flow line of 
sewer. A string stretched taut between the marks will give a line 
parallel to the sewer grade. When the trench is not sheeted the 
marks are placed on the side of the cut or upon convenient points, 
such as timbers thrown across. 

(h) 20 ft. apart. 

(c) The string stretched between points must have no sag. 

63. Explain fully how the grade of a brick sewer is given by a 
leveler and how given by the foreman. 

The leveler has cleats nailed to cross timbers on centre line of 
sewer, at suitable intervals, depending on the grade of the sewer. 
With the aid of level and rod, elevations of the tops of these cleats 
are obtained, and nicks are cut in them at a whole number of feet 
above the proposed flow line of the sewer. The distance above 
the flow line is marked on the cleats, as well as their station. The 
foreman measures down from a string stretched taut between 
these points with the aid of a stick of required length or a tape, and 
sets profiles or templets on line and grade. 

64. Describe how you would "set out" the work for a job of 
street grading where there were both heavy fills and cuttings. 

Run out centre line, setting stakes at half stations and at 
"breaks" in the slope of the ground and obtain profile of the line. 
Establish the grade line and compute cuts and fills along centre 
line. Take cross-sections at each station, setting side stakes at the 
specified distance, each side of centre line, and the slope stakes at 
points determined by trial. Upon the centre line stakes and the 
shoulder or side stakes the cuts or fills are plainly marked for the 
guidance of the contractor. 



32 



65. How would you set slope stakes for excavation and embank- 
ment for a contractor, having given the centre cut? 

First Method, 

Plot cross-sections of road showing grade lines and slopes on 
cross-section paper. The intersection of the slope and natural sur- 
face gives at once the distance from centre at which slope stakes 
should be set. Tabulate these distances and set the stakes accord- 
ingly. 

Second Method. 

Assuming a 14 to 1 slope, take elevation at side lines of road and 
compute cut or fill. By trial with the level and rod find a point on 
the ground whose height above or below grade equals | its distance 
from the side. For a 1 to 1 slope the distance from the side equals 
the height and proportionately for other slopes. Set the slope stakea 
at points thus determined. 

66. What are the usual slopes for embankments and excavation 
in rock, in earth? 

In excavation: 

Rock slope, i to 1. 

Earth slope, li to 1 or 1 to 1. 

In embankment: 
Rock 1 to 1. 
Earth, IJ to 1 or 1 to 1. 

67. Take a full sheet and show various columns required for a 
set of levels, starting and ending at a B. M. Also insert a set of 
levels on a line at least 1 000 ft. long with intermediates for a brook 
crossing the topography. 



Sta. 


B.i^. 


H.I. 


F. S. 


Elev. 


Remarks. 


B M. No.l2 


4.58 


104.58 




100.00 

101.2 

99.3 

97.0 

94.00 

91.9 

89.4 

91.8 

98.2 

101.4 

101. 46 

107.0 

107.8 

108.6 

109.5 

109.88 


Spike in root of Elm tree. 
50' N.E. of road crossmg. 


10 -1- 00 
9 - - (JO 


3.4 

5.3 

7.6 

10.58 

9.9 

12.4 

10.0 

3.6 

0.4 

0.36 

4.2 

li 






8 + 00 
T. P. 

7 + 49 








7.83 


101.82 


Spike in tel. pole. 
West shore line. 


7 + 20 






Bottom of brook. 


6-r98 
6 + 00 
5 - - (10 
T. P. 
4 + 00 






East shore line 














9.74 


111.20 


Projecting point of rock S. 
of R. R. track. 


8 + 00 
1+00 














+ 00 
B M No. 11 












El. 109.90 sq. cut S.E. cor 








coping W. abutment B'dge. 
No. 56 N. Y. C. R R. 



33 



68. Draw a profile of 600 ft. of a proposed street to approximate 
scale, showing grade line and other usual information. 



El.lOO 



El. 100 




+75 MO 2^00+27 3+00 4+00 +60 /5+00\ ^ 6+00*' 

+91 +18+50 

Pro+Ue on Cen+er Line of Proposed Stree-t". 



69. Suppose you had to find the amount of excavation on deep 
cut for monthly estimate, how would you do it? Give set of notes. 

At end of month take cross-sections of the bottom of excavation 
at same stations where the originals were taken and intermediates, 
if necessary. Plot" the notes on original sheets. Compute areas of 
sections and from them figure volume of excavation. Subtract 
amount allowed in previous monthly estimate to obtain estimate for 
the month. 

For set of notes see question No. 71. 



70. In an extensive rock cutting, how would the work be laid out 
and how would the quantities for monthly estimate of the work 
done be obtained ? 

The work would be laid out as follows : Stakes would be set along 
centre line, side lines and along the slopes, with their respective 
cuts to subgrade plainly marked. Regular stakes should be 25 ft. 
apart, 12-| ft. on curves and intermediates at changes of slope or 
grade or line. Important stakes must be referenced, so they can be 
readily replaced if destroyed during the work. 

The cross-section at each station is plotted, the grade and slope 
lines drawn, and the volume can then be computed. New cross- 
sections are taken each month at the same stations and others, if 
necessary, and plotted on the original sheets. The amount for the 
monthly estimate is obtained by deducting from the computed total 
the excavation allowed in the preceding months. 



34 



71. Give an example of monthly estimate notes taken for a 
street in the case of a deep rock cut 700 ft. by 80 ft. 



Monthly Est, 1 


STo. 10. 


Date 


r 






Party. ^ 
Jtoad No. 20. L 








■ 






Sta. 


B. S. 


H.I. 


F. S. 


El. 


Rem. 


Cross-Sections. 












i 


H. I. 59.2 


7 4-00 
























1 














1 
















1 

i 


3 + 00 


























45 20 20 40 


4-75 












1 o. s. 4.1 3.2 5.0 3.1 3.5 o. s. 


+ 50 












1 


2+35 












" 


10.30 


59.20 








! H. I. .52.3 


T. P. 








: 35 20 5 20 40 

o. s. 4.1 3.2 1.2 2.3 2.3 4.1 o. s. 

48.2 49.1 51.1 etc. 


2 + 00 








49.00 





+ 75 







+ 60 












1 


+ 50 














+ 25 












i 


+ 10 














1+00 

+ 75 ■ 
+ 50 













30 20 20 40 
o.s. 2.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 3.1 o. s. 






















30 20 5 10 20 


+ 25 












o.s. 1.2 0.0 1.5 2.5 4.0 3.0 

1 


+ 00 












! . etc.. etc. 

- 


2.12 

(.See 


52.27 
p. 40.) 








1 
! 


B. M. No. 25 






50.15 


(o. s. - original surface.* 



72. Give classification of excavation and fill generally used in 
regulating and grading streets. 

Earth excavation, including loam, " clay and boulders less than 
1 cu. yd. 

Loose rock, including rock which does not require blasting, and 
can be removed with pick, and boulders over 1 cu. yd. 

Solid rock includes all rock which requires bUisting for removal. 



35 



73. Give a form of monthly estimate for a contractor, previous 
estimate having been given. 



CD 

a- 
o 



- - o o o o 



g- Oo o o o 
® » 3 B BO 

rt ' ^ ® 5 S 



8 8 

o o 



2^ (t C i_( r>- 2; «*^ 

3g.''5^3STH 

(n re (n tr SL fD t---' ,»- <^. 



3g. 



O 89 



g? CD 



S2 
50 



h 



3 ; 3 



5-: ? 




o p 1 o* 

■ 3-3 <p 



C OS- 

p 2,5* 

^°B 

S.P 3. 
1o 






<dS^s-o^p2.o^ 
5-5P§^opo5,2f 



CD ti O rt 

e-pg-g-o- 



Pi 



!^||iiifr 



P Q 



§8-' 

o 2 
pre 

- Q. 



o p 



pgP0&^- 

PStPo-oPg 
1^ B 



0? 

a a* 

i 11 

I is 

5: ^B 



a p. 



oo 



S;S8 






SSS 



o o o o oo 

o o o o oo 



CJ 


S 


ac 


o< 


•e^ 


i 


§ 


2 
o 


2 


i 


i § 1 11 


p 


8 


8 


8 


g 


8 8 8 88 


7- 



o o 



36 



MATHEMATICS— LEVELER. 

74. Given field 90 ft. 4| in. on one side, 21 ft. 4| in. on other. 
Find area. 

Area = 90' 4f' X 21' 4|" (4|" = |f " = .406'+) 
= 90 '.406 X 21' .406 
= 1985.2 sq. ft. 

90.406 
21.406 

542436 
361624 
90406 

180812 

1935.230836 

75. Given rise of 12.547 ft. in distance 5763 ft., what is the gradef 

12.547 

12.547 in 5763 = in 100' 

57.63 
= .2177+ % grade. 

57.63)12.54700 ( .2177 
11.526 



1.0210 
5763 



44470 
40341 

41290 
40341 

949 

76. Find area of a right-angled triangle of which base is 43 ft. 
and hypothenuse 67 ft. 

. Base X Altitude. 
Area = 

Base = 43. 

Altitude = -/672 —43^. 

.-. Area = ^ X 43 X V&f^ — 43*^ 

= i X 43 X 51.4 = 1105.1 sq. ft. 



37 

77. Find area of triangle of which sides are 20', 30' and 40'. 

Area = V 8 (s — a) (.s — h) (s — c) 
in which s = 4 of (a + 6 + c), a, 6 and c being the sides ; that is. 
s = H20 + 30 + 40) = 45. 



Hence area = 1/45 (45 — 20) (45 — 30) (45 — 40) 
= v/45 X 25 X 15 X 5 = -/ 84375 

= 290+ sq. ft. 

78. Find the side in the triangle and show your work. 




Whence 



sin. A sin. 


B 


30 _ 


h 


sin. 20c 30' sin. 106^ 


^ _ sin. 106° 
sin. 200 30' 


X 30 


log. 30 - 


1.47712 


log. sin. IO60 ) 
or log. COS. 16° ) ~" 


9.98284 



colog. sin. 200 30' 
log. h 



11.45996 
0.45567 



1.91563 
. b = 82.34 -H Ans. 

79. The two ends of a floor are 19 and 16 ft. long. One side, per- 
pendicular to the end, is 28 ft. long. Find area of the floor and the- 
length of the fourth side. 

Area of floor = ^^ "^ ^^ X 28 = 35 X 14 == 490 sq. ft. 
2 



Fourth side 



V (19 — 16)2 + 282 == V 32 + 28- 

V + 784 = V^^ = 28.16 feet. 



38 

80. Find the volume of a prism 30 ft. X 4 ft. X 100 ft. high. 

Volume = Area base X height. 

= 30 X 4 X 100 = 12 000 cu. ft. 

81. Calculate the volume of a wedge (same dimensions as in 
preceding problem) 30 ft. X 4 ft. X 100 ft. high. 

Volume of wedge = i volume of prism 

30X4X100 _^ . 

= = 6 000 cu. ft. 



82. Find the solid contents of the frustum of a cone whose alti- 
tude is 18 ft., diameter of bases being 8 ft. and 6 ft. 

Volume = _ altitude X (area upper base -|- area lower base + 



s/ area upper base X area lower base). 

=. 1^ X 18 (;r X 4^ + ^ X 8^ + V ^ 4^ X ;r 3^) 

o 

= 6 ;r (16 + 9 + V 16 X U) 

= Qn (25 + 12) = 222 n = 697.44. 

83. Compute the capacity in gallons of a tank — 
whose upper diameter is 10 feet 
lower " 14 " 

and height 8 " 

there being 231 cu. in. = 1 gal. 

Prismoidal formula: 

,^ , . f4. I /Top area -f 4 X mid. area + bottom area\ 

Volume mcu. ft. =_(^ sq.ft. sq.ft. ^ sq.ft. ) 

1 = 8'. 

Top area ^ n X o^ 
Bottom area =i 7t X 7^ 
Mid area = tt X 6^ 

Vol. = I X (^ . 52 -f 4 ;r . 62 + ;r . 7^) 

= tf (^25 + 144 + 49^ = ^ X 4 ;r cu. ft. 

( 1 728 cu. in. in 1 cu. ft., using tt = — and 231 cu. in. in 1 gal. ) 

172'8 218 22 

Volume = -23f-X -3-X 4 X ^ = 6833.6 gallons. 



84. A retaining wall whose height is 20 ft., batter on front face 
li in. per ft., offsets on rear face 6 in. in every 5 ft., width of top 2 
ft., length 50 ft. Kequired contents in cu. yds. 



Area cross-section = '^ "^ "^'^ X 20 + 30 X 0.5 =- 80. 



Vol. .= 80 X 50 = 400 cu. ft. = 14.8 cu. yds. 



85. Suppose the elevations of an invert of a sewer at 2 manholes 
were respectively 3.06 and 10.76, and distance 1 270 ft., what would 
be the grade as ordinarily given? 

10.76 — 3.06 _ 'LW ^ QQQQQ foot = .606^ grade. 

1 270 1 270 ^ ^ * 



86. Calculate by prismoidal formula the contents of a road sec- 
tion 100 ft. long of which the following are the end sections, slopes 
U to 1. 



8 + 10 10 X 15 8 X 12 

-^— X30 + 2 + ~^~' 

= 270 -f 75 + 48 = 393 D' = area of 1st section = A 
45 X 10 



2 



225 D' = area of 2d section = B 
10 -f 4 10 X 15 4X6 



X 30 -f s— + 



2 -N -- I 2 '2 

= 210 4- 75 -f 12 = 297 D' = area of mid section = M 
Substitute in the prismoidal formula vol. = _ (JL -f- 4 Jf -f ^),the 

values from above, I = 100, A = 393, B -r= 225 and Jf = 297. 

100 / \ 

Vol. in cu. ft. = -g- (^ .393 -f 4 X 297 + 225 \ 

100 X 1 806 



6 



30 100 cu. ft. = 1 114.8+ cu. yds. 



87. Given street of uniform grade, with level sections 100 ft. 
apart, as follows: First section has 40 ft. bottom, 49 ft. top and 



40 
3 ft. cut; second section has 40 ft. bottom, 61 ft. top and Y ft. cut. 



Vol.= ri^X3+ ^-l + i_0x7-f4(^+i0)X5.0] 



100 

_ /267 707 1900\>< 100^,3 ,,()^^^f^ 
\ 2 2 2 / 6 

= 8872V cu. yds. 

88. Given an embankment witb roadway 40 ft., cut at centre 8 ft.,, 
at left angle stake 8^, slope stake on left 10 ft. below roadway, cut at 
right angle stake 8 slope stake on right 8^ ft. below roadway. 
Draw section and figure area. 



l l H i ini i i i niinii i ii i ^i ii ni i mii i ium 



Sf;d5 8' 8 .^ ^ 



•8 

Using \^ to 1 slope, slope stakes are set 15' to left and 12 '.5 to right. 
/8.25 + 8 8 + 8\ ^^,8X 12.5 , 8.25 X 15 



2 / 



V— ^— +-^;X20+ 2 - 2 

??:?f X 20 +^^^^ = 322.5 + 111.87 — 434.37 sq. ft. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES. 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER 
AND TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER. 

Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 

Vol. III. DRAUGHTSMAN, and INSPECTOR. 



VOL. I. PART IV. 

TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER, 



INDEX 

Previous Examination Papers, pp. 4 to 16. 
Typical Questions and Answers, pp. 17 to 36. 



NEW YORK : 

The Engineering News Publishing Company. 

1906. 



Copyright, 1906, by 
Thk Engineering News Publishing Company 



J. F. TAPLEY Co. 

BOOK M AN U FACTURE R3 

NEW YORK 



PREFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" which have been included 
in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical in word- 
ing with those actually given at the examinations, as copies of the 
original papers are not readily procurable, but they do embody the 
substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," the 
answers indicate in a general way only what is required of the can- 
didate, and are not intended to be perfect and complete, as reason- 
able variance of opinion may exist as to what is the best answer in. 
many cases, owing to differences in interpretation of the question. 
and in education and experience. 

In order to perpetuate the value of this book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing for 
the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions and 
Answers" have been interleaved, to provide space for notes, sketches. 
and additions. 



SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS, 



TRAl^SITMAN AND COMPUTER 



Technical. 
Salary, $1 200-$l 800 per annum. 

1. State the duties a transitman may be called upon to per- 
form in the City of New York. 

2. Describe a party organized for transit work and the duties of 
each person. 

3. Where the best and most accurate work with a transit is re- 
quired, describe every precaution requisite on the part of the transit- 
man in adjusting, handling, protecting and sighting his instrument. 
(See also next question.) 

4. How are errors in reading the instrument and in graduation of 
the limb guarded against or minimized? 

6. (a) What causes are there for error in long sights? (&) Can 
these be guarded against in any way, and, if so, how? 

6. Describe the operation of making an accurate survey of a 
city block, both exterior and interior, where every side is filled with 
buildings. 

7. Give a sample of notes, as you would record them in your note- 
book, of a survey of a new street half a mile long, having several 
angles, and crossing other streets and a stream. 

8. Describe the adjustment, for leveling purposes, of the long 
bubble which is attached to some transits. 

9. -Name all the other adjustments of a transit in the order in 
which they should be made. 

10. Suppose you had to measure the distance between two objects 
on the opposite side of a stream without crossing it. (a) Describe 
the instrumental work necessary, (h) Make a sketch and describe 
the method of making the computation of the distanop. 

11 and 12. A trapezoidal piece of ground has one end at right 
angles to the parallel sides. The sides measure, respectively, 110 ft. 



and 175 ft. and the inclined side has a length of 97 ft. Required 
first, to compute the perpendicular distance between the sides; and, 
second, to cut off J of the area from the widest portion by a line 
parallel to the sides, computing its perpendicular distance from the 
widest side. (Show all figures.) 

13. Wliat is the limit of error allowed in chaining in measure- 
ments on city streets ? 

14. How can you compute a very small angle without the use of 
tables, having given the distance run and the side opposite the angle 
required ? 

15. An area of ground is to be used as a borrow pit. It has been 
laid out by lines at right angles to each other at suitable distances 
and the cuts at each intersection determined. How would you de- 
termine the cubical contents? 

Arithmetic. 

1. The inscribed circle in a regular octagon has a radius of 23 ft. 

What is the area of the figure ? 

2. Extract by logaritlims the cube root of .0075218, 

3. Multiply by logarithms 7.1263 X 0.0439. 

4. The side of a right-angled triangle is 27 and the base is 13: 
(a) T\'Tiat is the natural sine of the angle opposite the base? (h) 
What is the natural tangent of the angle opposite the side ? Note : 
Do this by arithmetic. 

5. The radius of a circle is 50; what is the length of an arc of 
28° ? (Do this by arithmetic.) 

Experience, v 

1. When and where were you born? 

2. Have you taken a regular course of instruction as engineer 
in any college or technical school? If so, give the name and the 
length of the course ; also state what degrees or diploma you received, 
if any. 

3. If you have not taken such a course, state what education as 
an engineer you have had. 

4. Have you followed any mechanical occupation? If so, what 
was it, and for how long? 

5. State what experience you have had in the work of transitman 
or computer, particularly in city work. - 

6. State any other facts in your experience that you consider 
would help you as an engineer. 





TEA^SITMAN AND COMPUTER. 

1. Explain what is meant by term refraction and in what way, 
if at all, it may affect line of sight of a transit instrument. 

2. Does it make any difference what time of day a transit line is 
run, where accuracy is required, and, if so, under what conditions? 

3. After setting up a transit before giving flagman a signal "all 
right," what should the instrumentman do? 

4. In what ways may errors be made in reading an angle? 

5. Will two persons taking the same reading of transit after set- 
ting always make it the same, and, if not, why not? 

6. How is the effect of errors in graduation of the limb of a tran- 
sit upon the accuracy of the work lessened by the method of use ? 

7. Suppose a random line to be run is measured, and it is found 
to end at one side of the point sought, by a small amount, what 
simple rule is there for determining the angular error by arith- 
metical proportion ? 

8. Compute the area of the following survey after making all 
necessary correction: 

1 N 15° 15' E 20 chains. 5 S 25° 45' W 13.5 chains. 

2 N 37° 30' E 10 " 6 (missing) 

3 N 50° 0' E 7.6 ." 7 S 36° 30' W 9.9 " 

4 S 11° 30' E 12.5 " 8 N 38° 15' W 8.5 " 

9. What is the difference between traverse tables and a table of 
natural sines and cosines? 

10. How does a logarithm table differ from these and what ad- 
vantage has it in use? 

11. Give the complete organization of the party for making an 
important survey in the city. 

12. Show two pages of your notebook on which are reported a 
line survey, having at least five courses, with road and brook cross- 
ings, offsets to barns and other buildings, and any other objects such 
as survey should take note of. 



13. Suppose a survey is to be made, what other way or ways of 
examining it for errors are there besides that by latitudes and de- 
partures. 

14. What are the sources of error in line measurement? 

15. Suppose in making a survey in the city one or more lines are 
interfered with by buildings, how is the survey to be made? 



TKANSITMAN AND COMPUTEK. 

1. Describe all the adjustments of an engineer's level in their 
proper order. State also what condition of the adjusting screws as 
to tightness will keep the instrument longest in adjustment and why? 

2. Describe all the steps in the field work of taking a line of levels 
over difficult ground in such a way as to eliminate as far as possible 
errors of every nature and from every cause whatever. 

3. Describe carefully all the adjustments of an engineer's transit 
in their proper order. 

4. Describe carefully the operation of measuring a lot of irregular 
form where all measurements and lines of sight are taken from the 
interior. 

5. Describe carefully the method of running a long straight line 
where several sights must be taken so as to avoid errors of every 
kind as far as possible. 

6. State all the errors that may be made in reading the vernier 
of an instrument and how do you guard against them? 

7. Give in best and neatest manner you can, a specimen of your 
level notes, showing at least ten stations on a line of considerable 
variation in level, with deduction of the same. 

8. Give in same manner a specimen of your transit notes with 
enough stations to show how you would indicate a road and stream 
crossing, buildings, etc. 

9. What shorthand method for use without tables is there for 
determining the correction angle for an offset to a point, where the 
distance run and offset are determined? 

10. Describe carefully the operation of measuring an angle where 
greatest precision is necessary. 

11. Eor the solution of a plane triangle, state the several prob- 
lems that may arise, also what is the least number of sides that must 
be given. 

12. Is there ever a case where two solutions are possible, and if 
so, what are the conditions? 

13. What is a traverse table and upon what angular functions is 
it based? 



9 

14. What do you mean by a well-conditioned angle? Describe 
also its opposite. 

15. Suppose that for any reason the measurements and angles 
for one side of an irreg-ular lot are missing from a survey, and you 
wish to determine them, how would you do it? 



10 

TEANSITMAN AND COMPUTER 

1. (a) Describe the adjustment of the bubble on the limb of a 
transit, (h) How would the angles measured with the bubble out 
of adjustment be affected? 

2. (a) Describe the adjustment of crosshairs, (h) Would the 
line of collimation being out of adjustment affect every angle meas- 
ured? Explain this fully. 

3. Suppose there is a vertical limb to an instrument, is any ad- 
justment or test needed, and, if so, what? 

4. Suppose the horizontal axis of the telescope to be not strictly 
at right angles to the vertical axis, how would it show itself in work 
done? And how would the adjustment of the instrument be made? 

6. Describe all the causes of error in reading the limb of a transit. 

6. Describe all the causes of error in the use of a transit, aside 
from errors due to instrument and of reading. 

Y. Give a sample of your notes in full, assumed without regard 
to balancing, for a survey of a large farm with at least 12 angles 
crossed by a stream and a railroad, containing farm buildings, etc. 

8. State how you would arrange your party for such a survey. 

9. Suppose obstructions on one of the sides to require that one 
angle be sighted to an offset stake ; what is the form of the simple 
proportion by which you can determine the small angle required to 
correct the sight, requiring no tables for its use? 

10. Give the form of a table required to balance such a survey as 
that in question. Explain its use. 

11. Suppose you find the errors to be very considerable; is there 
any way by which you can determine where errors may probably be 
found? State what you would do. 

12. In the use of a good transit of ordinary size, what would you 
expect the average error in each of a number of angles to amount to ? 

13. You are running the center line of a street, which at a given 
pcint turns (x) degrees to the right. The width of the street being 
(b) feet, give an algebraic expression for the distance to the angle 
slake which you must set at either side of the street. 

14. A trapezoidal piece of ground is to be divided into two equal 
parts by a line parallel to the parallel sides. The parallel sides are, 
respectively, 5Y5 and 437 ft. long. The other sides are 300 and 350 



11 

ft. long, respectively. State the distance to the dividing line from 
the longest parallel side on each of the other sides. 

15. One of the sides of a hexagon is 30 ft.; what is the area of 
the hexagon? 

Mathematics. 

1. Divide by logarithms : .0007098 by 796.05. 

2. The natural sine of 33° is .5446 and the natural cosine .8387. 
Determine by arithmetic the natural tangent. 

X . X plus 3 

mmus - — 

X plus 1 2 {x plus 4) 

4. Find the cubical contents of a solid wall of masonry 104 ft. 
8 in. long, 12 ft. 3 in. high, 8 ft. broad on top and 10 ft. 4 in. broad 
at the bottom. 



3. Solve ., ^ mmus ^ ^j^_^ -^ equals ^. 



12 
TRANSITMAN AND COMPUTER. 

1. State as fully as you can the duties of a transitman. 

2. Describe an engineer's transit and name the adjustments in 
the order in which they should be made. 

3. State how a transit out of adjustment can be used to produce a 
straight line. 



4. Describe the verniers upon a transit and state how you are 
enabled to read — to minutes — to half minutes. 



6. What is a logarithm? In what calculations is a logarithm 

useful ? 



6. The diameter of end of a cylinder is 20, length 30, what are 

the cubical contents? 

7. Define the terms, sine, cosine, tangent and co-tangent? 

8. How many men are needed to make up a full party for the 
survey of a preliminary line or section of a public work, such as a 
railroad or aqueduct? 

9. What are natural sines, cosines? 

10. How many parts of a plane triangle must be given to find the 

rest? 

11. Being required to run a straight line a mile in length, state 
T/hat precautions you would take to secure accuracy in alignment. 

12. Explain the operation of setting slope stakes. 

13. Make an assumed cross-section of a canal in rock cutting, 
showing the levels taken at different dates during the progress of 
the work and compute the area removed by the contract at different 
dates assumed. 



14. Draw the plan and elevation of a pyramid with a triangular 
I base. 

I 

15. The radius of a curve is 600 ft. ; find the de^ee of the curve. 

16. Find the pressure per square inch at a depth of 100 ft. in a 
lake. 



14 

TRANSITMAN AND COMPUTER. 

August 8, 1904. 
Technical. 

1. Wliat is the very first adjustment of a transit that should al- 
ways be made and how is it done? 

2. (a) What planes should a transit instrument describe or re- 
volve in truly, if in perfect adjustment? (h) In case it describes a 
cone when revolved on its horizontal axis, what adjustment must be 
made and how is it done ? 

3. If the plane described when revolved vertically is inclined to 
the vertical, what adjustment must be made and how is it done? 

4. Describe fully the making of a topographical survey with a 
transit, and a stadia rod. 

5. If an error of one minute be made in reading an angle, what 
would be the effect from the true line at a distance of 3 000 ft. ? 
Show all your figures. No tables required. 

6. In running a line with a transit instrument by foresights and 
backsights with several set-ups, would you or would you not get a 
straight line if you kept foresights and backsights equal; in other 
words, would instrumental errors be compensated by doing so? 

7. Describe two ways of prolonging a straight line accurately. 

8. Describe all the ways you know of repeating the readings of an 
angle for the purpose of accuracy and state the objections, if any, 
to each; or else, the reason why it will be the most accurate method. 

9. Describe clearly the method of measuring a base line for an 
accurate triangulation in the surveys of the city. 

10. (a) In what ways are accurate sights more difficult in doing 
city work than in the open country? (h) State how you can over- 
come these difficulties in each case ? 

11. State how (that is, describe the operation by which) you 
would carry a line of survey through a city block covered with 
buildings and locate and measure all lot intersections as well as 
external lot measurements; in other words, make a complete and 
accurate map of the block. 

12. (a) Suppose you have the courses and length of all the sides 
of a piece of ground but one. Could you compute the area, and how 
would you do it? (h) In so doing what assumptions would be made? 



15 

13. Suppose you wish to determine the area of a piece of ground 
with a number of sides, which is entirely unobstructed and you have 
only a chain or tape; how can you do it? Make a sketch. 

14. Why is a very small angle undesirable in trigonometric meas- 
urements ? 

15. State a simple arithmetical rule for determining the angle 
subtended by a very small offset from a transit line at any given 
distance; state also the explanation of this rule. 

Mathematics. 

1. Compute the number of square yards of pavement on a curve 
of which the radius of the center line is 350 ft., the angle at the 
center is 40° ; and the width of the pavement 40 ft. 

2. Compute the natural line of an angle in a right-angled tri- 
angle of which the hypothenuse is 107 ft., and the side "opposite" 
the angle is 83 ft. 

3. Compute the natural tangent of the "adjacent" angle in the 
same triangle. 

4. Find the contents of the frustum of a cone of which the radii 
of the bases are respectively 7 ft. and 4 ft. 7 in. and the height 8 ft. 
5 in. The prismoidal formula may be used, if it is so desired. 

5. The side of a hexagon circumscribing a circle is 12 ft. What 
is the area of the circle? 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIOKS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



Transitman and Computer 



I TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

I 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWEKS. 

1. State the duties a transitman may be called upon to perform 
in the City of New York. 

A transitman is required to run the instrument; to do careful, 
accurate and rapid work; keep complete, neat, legible notes, and 
direct the entire work of party. 

He must be able to reduce, plot notes, and assist with office work. 

He may be called upon to m.ake topographic, street opening, 
damage and other surveys, to lay out work, and give line and grade 
for sewers, highways, bridge and other construction work. 

2. How would you make up a transit party for the survey of a 
railroad or aqueduct? Also for the survey of a city block? 

A well-composed transit party for the survey of a railroad or 
aqueduct should be made up as follows : Chief of party, transitman, 
head and rear chainmen, two flagmen and one axeman or stakeman. 

For the survey of a city block a transit party shouild consist of 
chief of party (transitman or assistant engineer), instrumentman 
(leveler or transitman), two chainmen and an axeman. 

3. State the duties of each man. 

The duties of the chief of party are to direct the survey and see 
that each man does his work properly. 

The transitman runs the instruments, keeps notes, and takes 
charge of party in the absence of the chief. 

The head chainman runs the front end of the chain, obtaining 
his line from the transitman, and keeps tally of the distances. 

The rear chainman runs the rear end of the chain, calls and 
checks the stationing. 

The axeman or stakeman keeps a supply of stakes, accompanies 
the head chainman and marks them as directed, drives the stakes, 
clears the line, and makes himself generally^ useful. 

The front flagman establishes points ahead as directed by the 
chief of party or transitman. He should select transit points that 
will give both fore and back sight with least possible obstructions. 

The rear flagman gives sights on the established transit points. 

4. State the adjustments of the engineer's transit. 

1. Adjustment of the plate levels ; to make them perpendicular 
to the vertical axis. 

2. Adjustment of the cross hairs; to make the line of col- 
limation perpendicular to the horizontal axis. 



19 

3. Adjustment of the horizontal axis: to make it perpendicu- 
lar to the vertical axis. 

4. Adjustment of the long bubble (for leveling) : to make the 
line of sight and the bubble axis parallel to each other. 

Note: While "parallax" is called an adjustment, it is not one in 
the sense of those above mentioned. 

5. What is the very first adjustment of a transit that should al- 
ways be made and how is it done ? 

Adjustment of the plate levels: to make them perpendicular to 
the vertical axis. 

Level up, with the bubbles parallel to the leveling screws ; reverse 
180°. If the bubbles do not remain in the center, correct one-half 
the error by means of the leveling screws and the remaining half by 
means of the adjusting screws attached to the plate levels. 

Test the adjustment and repeat if necessary. 

6. (a) What planes should a transit instrument revolve in truly, if 
in perfect adjustment? (h) In case it describes a cone when re- 
volved on its horizontal axis, what adjustment must be made and 
how is it done? 

(a) In vertical and horizontal planes. 
(h) The cross hair adjustment: to make the line of col- 
limation perpendicular to the horizontal axis. 
Set up instrument on fairly level ground. 

Sight on a fixed point a few hundred feet away. Clamping in- 
strument, revolve telescope, and set a point in the opposite direction 
about the same distance. 

Unclamp and revolve instrument^ setting again on first point, the 
telescope being reversed. 

Now revolve telescope again, fixing a third point beside the sec- 
ond. Measure off one-fourth the distance between these two points 
from the third point, and by means of the adjusting screws on the 
cross hair ring, bring the line of sight on this point. 
Test and repeat if necessary. 









True Line 



(Fixee() ^0> 



— E 






<^ 



E 



^^-V^- 

-T/^/ 



Adjust Cross-Hairs "vt^^^ 3'^ Point 
to th/s Point--^ ^ 



20 

7. If the plane described when telescope is revolved vertically is 
inclined to the vertical, what adjustment must be made and how is 
it done? 

Adjustment of the horizontal axis: to make it perpendicular to 
the vertical axis. 

Set up instrument about 25 ft. from a building or other tall 
object. 

Sight on some fixed high point, clamp instrument, depress the 
telescope and mark a low point on line. 

Reverse telescope and sight on the high point again, depress and 
mark a second low point beside the first. 

The mean of the two lower points is vertically beneath the upper 
fixed point. 

Raise or lower one end of the horizontal axis by means of the 
adjusting screws until the cross hairs bisect the mean position. 

Test and repeat if necessary. 



xFix&iPffinf" 



I' 



\ 
%. 






4 1 
I 

litLoYvPoirH- A ZI'^LowPoini- 

Mean Position on which _ , 
In fersecfion ofCross-Ha/rs is set 

8. Describe the adjustments of the cross hairs. Would the line 
of sight being out of adjustment affect every angle measured? Ex- 
plain fully. 

{a) See Question 6. 

(&) The line of sight being out of adjustment will not affect 
angles between points in the same horizontal plane. 

The line of sight not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis 
describes a conical surface when the telescope is revolved. To ob- 
tain the correct angle between two points of different elevations we 
measure the angle between two vertical planes passing through them. 

-Therefore the angles will not be correct and the error will vary 
with the difference of elevation. 

9. If the transit is furnished with a level tube, what adjustments 
are necessary to enable it to be used for leveling, and what extra 
adjustments to be used as a transit? 

If the transit is furnished with a level tube, it is necessary to 
make the axis of the bubble parallel to the line of collimation, if 



21 

the instrument is to be used for leveling. This is done by the "Peg 
method" — see Vol. 1, part 3. 

The plate bubbles must also be in adjustment. 

To use the instrument for transit work, in addition to latter ad- 
justment, the line of collimation and the horizontal axis must be in 
adjustment. 

10. How often should adjustments of a transit be tested? 

Adjustments should be tested on starting out when accurate work 
is to be done. The tests should be made during the course of the 
work about once a week. Where the instrument is known to hold 
its adjustments poorly, the tests should be made more often. 

The transitman can usually tell during the course of his work 
T^-hen the instrument requires adjustment. 

11. Can accurate work be done with the instrument out of ad- 
justment ? 

Yes, if the proper steps are taken to eliminate errors. 

12. How would the measured angles, with the bubbles out of ad- 
justment be affected? 

When the plate bubble is out of adjustment, the vertical axis is 
inclined. The planes described by the line of sight are therefore 
not vertical nor equally inclined. The measured horizontal angles 
will therefore be in error, because horizontal angles between points, 
are the angles subtended by vertical planes through those points and 
the instrument. 

The error will be large or small, depending upon the relative 
elevation of the points. 

13. If the bubble perpendicular to the telescope is out, but the 
collimation is vertical, will the line be a straight one? 

No. If this bubble is out, the vertical axis is inclined, and since 
the plane generated by the line of sight is vertical, it cannot be 
directly over the point indicated by the plumb bob. There will thus 
be a shght cumulative error in each set-up. 

14. Suppose the horizontal axis of the telescope be not strictly at 
right angles to the vertical axis, how would it show itseK in the 
work done ? 

In this case the line of sight describes equally inclined planes 
and the measured angles depend upon the difference of elevation be- 
tween the points, but not upon the size of the angle. The errors will 



22 

be plus or minus, depending upon the direction of inclination of the 
axis and the relative position of the points. 

Lines run with the instrument in this condition will not be 
straight. 

15. Suppose there is a vertical limb to an instrument; is there any 
adjustment or test needed ; if so, what ? 

The vernier of the vertical circle should read zero when the line 
of sight is horizontal or else the index error should«be noted. 

^ 16. How would you prolong a straight line from a given back- 

sight ? 

Set accurately over point, putting one set of leveling screws 
in line. Level up carefully, turn upon given back-sight; clamp the 
instrument and make a careful bisection. Kevolve telescope and set 
a point ahead. 

Lnclamp and revolve about the vertical axis, making a second 
bisection upon the rear point, with the telescope reversed. Clamp 
again and revolve telescope and set a second point ahead, beside the 
first. The mean position of these two points is on the true prolonga- 
tion of the line. 

Care should be taken that the cross bubble is in the center when 
sights are taken. This method is called "Double Hubbing," "Double 
Reversal" or "Double Centering." 

17. (a) How would you prolong a line for a distance of a mile? 
Give two methods, (h) How would you correct errors made in so 



(a) First method — By "double hubbing." See Question No. 16. 

Second method — ^By foresights. Set on the rear point. Sight 
on the forward point, and set a new point ahead. Move instrument 
to forward point, sight on point just established and set another 
point ahead of this. Continue operation until the mile is run. If 
possible a long foresight should be fixed ahead, which can be avail- 
able for difierent set-ups. 

(h) If the total error in the line at the end of the mile is known 
or can be found, the intermediate iDoints may be corrected in position 
by proportioning the error according to their distances from the 
starting point. 

18. In running a line with a transit by F. S. and B. S. with sev- 
eral set-ups, would you or would you not get a straight line if you 
kept F. S. and B. S. equal? In other, words, would instrumental 
errors be compensated in so doing? 



23 

Not necessarily. 

Instrumental errors are not compensated by taking equal sights 
in running a transit lina 

19. In what ways are accurate sights more difficult in doing city 
•work than in open country? State how you would overcome the 
difficulties in each case. 

In the city accurate sights are interfered with by obstructions 
and traffic, disturbance and jar of the instrument, etc. To over- 
come difficulties due to obstructions and traffic, select times when 
these are least, or arrange sights that will not be obstructed. To 
overcome the effect of jar and distiubance due to vehicles or pedes- 
trians, the instrument should be as far removed from them as pos- 
sible and should be firmly set up and carefully watched. 



20. What is meant by the double reversal method 



It is an accurate method of prolonging straight lines to eliminate 
errors of adjustment. It consists in fixing two points ahead beside 
each other, one with the telescope direct and the other with it re- 
versed, the backsight being fixed. The mean of the two points thus 
obtained is on the true line. 

See also Question 'No. 16. 

21. When prolonging a line, which is most accurate, reversing 
180° on limb, or revolving the telescope ? What is the most accurate 
method of prolonging a line? 

Revolving telescope is the more accurate. 

The "double reversal" method is the most accurate. See Ques- 
tion No. 16. 

22. If a line is run from a point a and it is afterward found that 
the line run is a short distance x from the point, what arithmetical 
calculation would you employ to find the correction for the angle 
at a? 

Use proportion. 

Angle a : 180° : : error x : distance X 3.1416, and calculate 
angle a. 

23. If it were necessary to cut a street through a block that was 
built up, how would you run the line? 

Run the line through any available openings in the buildings, 
such as alleyways, halls, windows, etc., by offsetting from the center 
line, or traverse lines. 



24 

If this is not feasible, offset the line to the next street, as in the 
case of an obstruction. 

24. State all the sources of error that may occur in transit work. 

1. Instrumental errors, embracing errors of adjustment, 
eccentricity of centers and verniers, and defective construc- 
tion. 

2. Errors of observation, embracing errors of bisection, 
parallax, errors in reading verniers, personal errors of observa- 
tion, unsteady and indistinct sights, and using too short 
sights. 

3. Errors in setting up, embracing inaccurate centering 
over point, not setting up firmly, disturbance of instrument 
after setting up, and carelessness in handling. 

4. Errors due to natural conditions, such as vs^ind, sun, air, 
tremor, snow, ice and frost, dust and fog. 

^25. Where the best and most accurate work with a transit is re- 
quired, describe every precaution requisite on the part of the transit- 
man in adjusting, handling, protecting and sighting his instrument. 

Adjust the instrument carefully on starting work and test fre- 
quently during the course of the work. The adjusting screws should 
be firmly set, but not strained. 

In handling the instrument the transitman should see that the 
instrument is not jarred, that the head swings freely in carrying, 
that the clamps in setting the instrument should be snug, but not 
strained, that there should be no lost motion either in the instru- 
ment or the tripod. 

In protecting the transit keep it clean and free from rain and 
dust. A waterproof cover should be provided for the purpose. It 
should tbe shielded •from sun and wind. When not in use and when 
carried on vehicles it should be kept in the box. 

In sighting always focus carefully and avoid parallax. Make 
accurate bisections, eliminate errors by the -reversal method and by 
repetition, and avoid eccentricity by reading both verniers. 

26. (a) What causes are there for errors in long sights? (h) 
Can these be guarded against in any way and, if so, how? 

(a) Poor sights, their indistinctness due to atmospheric con- 
ditions or low power of instrument. In long sights the space cov- 
ered by cross hair is relatively large, thus making accurate bi- 
sections more difficult. The effect of wind and disturbance of in- 
strument is magnified. 



25 

(h) These can be guarded against by doing the work under the 
most favorable atmospheric conditions, *by having a good telescope 
and using fixed and well defined sights. 

27. What, in your opinion, is the best length of sight, and why? 

The longer the sight consistent with distinctness the better. 
With good sighting boards and a .good transit, sights as *long as a 
mile and more may be taken. 

In reading angles the longer the sights,, the smaller will the 
angular error be, due to imperfect bisection, adjustments, setting 
over point, etc. 

The> length of sight is limited only by the power of the telescope, 
atmospheric conditions and nature of sights themselves. 

28. What effect does the heat of the sun have on transit work ? 

The sun's heat causes unequal expansion of different parts of 
the instrument. It produces shortening of bubbles, air tremor, 
glare both on the sight and the object glass, thus affecting the ac- 
curacy of the work, as well as its rapidity. 

29. What time of year and what conditions of weather are best 
adapted to most accurate transit work, and why? 

Accurate transit work can best be done in the fall, when the 
ground is most stable and the temperature most uniform. A per- 
fectly calm, cloudy day, with a clear atmosphere and a temperature 
of from 40 to 60°, offers the best conditions of weather. 

30. Describe all the causes of error in reading the limb of a 
transit. 

Errors in reading the limb may be madcv by parallax in reading 
the verniers, by using a poor or no reading glass, by reading on the 
wrong side of the vernier or in wrong direction on limb, by reading 
the wrong graduations, and not by shading the vernier. 

31. How are errors in reading the limb and in graduation of the 
instrument guarded against or minimized? 

The errors may be minimized by reading both verniers and read- 
ing on different parts of the limb, by using a good reading glass and 
observing care in reading the verniers and graduations, by shielding 
the verniers from glare of the sun, by having the readings checked. 
By reading angles by repetition, using different portions of the limb, 
errors in graduation are minimized. 

32. In the use of a good transit of ordinary size, what would you 
expect the average error in each of a number of angles to amount to ? 



26 

From two to five seconds per angle, depending on number of 
angles, lengths of sights, etc. 

^33. Suppose you find the errors to be very considerable; is there 
any way by which you can determine where errors can probably be 
found? State what you would do. 

1. Compare magnetic bearings with computed bearings. 

2. Where the polygon can be split up into smaller ones in which 
the angles have been read, test each„ 

3. Where supplementary angles have been taken, they will help to 
locate error. 

34. If an error of one minute be made in reading an angle, what 
would be the offset from the true line at a distance of 3 000 ft. ? 

Use proportion: 

Offset : 3.1416 X distance : : error in angle in minutes : 180 X 60, 
giving at 3 000 ft. an offset of 0.873 ft. 

-^- 35. How would you determine the distance between two inac- 
cessible points ? 

Measure a base line with the inaccessible points visible from 
either end. Set up at each end of the base and read the angles from 
the inaccessible points to the base. From the data thus obtained 
calculate the required distance. 

36. How would you measure an angle made by two lines at an in- 
accessible point? 

Establish a point on each of the lines visible from the inaccessible 
point and from each other. Set up on them and read the angle be- 
tween each line and the line joining the points. Add the two angles 
thus obtained and subtract their sum from 180°. The difference 
will be the required angle. 

37. Suppose you had to measure the distance between two objects 
on opposite sides of a stream without crossing it. Describe the in- 
strumental work necessary. Make a sketch and show the method of 
making the computation of the distance. 



A 


111 


B 


I ^ 




y/^ 


\ / 




J^ 


Vc 




y^ 


\ 


Ir 





i 



27 

Let A and B be the two objects. Set up on A. Establish a 
pcint C (visible from A and B) on the same side, so that A will 
be about equal to A B. Measure line A C and angle at A, Now 
set up at C and measure angle at C. Two angles and the included 
side being thus known, A B is computed from proportion 
A B : A C :: sin. C : sin. B. 

38. Suppose obstructions to one of the sides to require that one 
angle be sighted to an offset stake, what is the form of simple pro- 
portion by which you can determine the small angle required to 
correct the sight requiring no tables for its use? 

The small angle : 180° :: the offset : dist. X 3.1416. See Ques- 
tion No. 22. 

39. What is meant by the degree of curvature of a curve and how 
is it used? 

The dtgree of curvature of a curve is the number of degrees in 
the central angle subtended by a chord of 100 ft. 

It is used in designating the sharpness of a curve and computing 
deflections, etCc, for staking out curve. 

40. How would you join two lines by a simple curve? Show your 
notes. 



' ' \ d= Def/ecthr? Ang^/e 

Prolong the two lines until they meet at P. I. and measure the 
deflection angle. 

Decide upon the degree of curve. Compute the tangent dis- 
tance T. 

Lay off the computed distance T from this point of intersection 
(P. I.) on each of the lines, giving the beginning (P. C.) and the end 
(P. T.) of the curve. 



28 



Set transit at the P. C. with vernier reading zero, sight on P. L 
Turn off angle equal to half the degree of curve to a, 100 ft. from 
P. C. Drive stake at a. 

Then deflect 2X4 degree of curve and measure 100 ft. from a, 
giving h, the second point on the curve. 

Proceed in this manner until the deflection equals one-half the 
central angle, when, if the work is correct, the last point will coin- 
cide with the P. T. 



Station. 


Bearing. 


Deflection. 


Vernier. 


Remarks. 


13 + 00 
^ P. T. 12 + 00 

11 + 00 
10 + 00 

9 + 00 
8 + 00 
7 + 00 
A P. 0. 6 + 00 
5 + 00 
4 + 00 








_ A 12X100 

L — 100 TT- 7^ 6 


J\r52^ 


120 B 


6^00 

5000 
4000 
3000 
2000 
10 00 


A = 120 00 
I) = 2° 00 i? 
i? — 28.65 






p. 7. — 9 _|_ 00.8 






T. — 300.8 






P. 0. = 6 + 00 
L — 600 






^4:001] 




P. T. = 12 + 00 



41. How would you lay out a curve without an instrument? 




Prolong lines to P. I. Compute T., and set stakes at P. C. and 
P. T. 

Measure 100 ft. from P. C. along tangent to a. Lay off the tan- 
gent offset from a, giving h, a point on the curve. Prolong the chord 
through h 100 ft. to c. From c lay off the chord offset, giving d 
another point on curve. Prolong chord through d and proceed as 
before until P. T. is reached. 



i 



29 

Note. — Tangent offset is equal to the chord squared divided by 
twice the radius. Chord offset equals twice tangent offset. 

42. What other ways are there of laying out curves? 

Besides the methods of deflections and tangent offsets curves 
may be laid out by middle ordinates, by swinging the arc (the center 
being accessible and radius convenient), by ordinates from the long 
chord, and by offsets from the tangents. 

43. Describe all the ways you know, of repeating the readings of 
an angle for the purpose of accuracy. State all the objections, if 
any, or why you consider it the best method. 

1. By method of repetition. See Question 44. This method 
permits a closer value of the angle to be obtained than could be done 
by a single reading. 

2. By method of reversal. By taking one set of repetitions, say, 
in a clockwise direction, with -the telescope normal, and another set 
with the telescope reversed in an anti-clockwise direction, errors of 
collimation, horizontal and vertical axes, also errors of twist and 
lost motion are eliminated. By reading both verniers errors of 
eccentricity of verniers are eliminated. 

3. By series. By taking complete sets of readings with verniers 
set at different portions of the limb on starting, errors of graduation 
and eccentricity of plates are eliminated. 

44. How would you measure an angle accurately? Give your 
method in detail. 

Set up instrument carefully over point. 

Bead the angle and record the reading, using both verniers. 

Repeat the readings of the angle, adding the successive readings 
on the limb and divide the total angle by the number of repetitions. 

In making the repetitions, take one-half the readings with the 
telescope normal and one-half with the telescope reversed. 

Note. — To make- a repetition proceed as follows : Set vernier A 
at zero. Sight on first station, clamp lower and unclamp upper 
motion, and sight on second station. "Record the angle. Now un- 
clamping lower motion, sight again on *firs-t station and clarnp. Then 
unclamping upper motion, sight again on second station. The read- 
ing on the limb wall be twice the angle. Repeat this operation as 
often as desired, noting the number of repetitions. See also* Ques- 
tion 43. 

45. Describe clearly the method of measuring a base .line for an 
accurate triangulation survey in the city. 

Set up transit over one end of the base line and. «sight on a fixed 
flag on the other end or on an intermediate point already established. 



30 

Use a 100-ft. steel tape with a compensating spring balance and 
thermometer attachment, which has been compared with a standard 
and whose error is accurately known. 

Points may be marked on flagging by fine scratches ; on macadam 
by fine tacks or by using chaining plates, spikes, or spiders on which 
to mark points. 

The rear chainman plumbs the zero end carefully over the start- 
ing point; the front chainman applying the proper pull, holds the 
tape level on Hne. At proper signals, the front chainman fixes the 
forward point; this point is then tested and if it checks the chain is 
carried ahead for the next measurement. 

The operation is repeated until the entire base has been chained. 
Plusses are obtained by the graduated tape. 

The base should then be measured in the opposite direction and 
the mean of the two determinations taken. 

Permanent points should be established at convenient intervals 
along the line. 

46. How would you make a survey for a reservoir and calculate 
its capacity? 

First. Run a traverse and establish bench marks around the 
reservoir site. 

By means of the plane table, or the transit and stadia, or by 
cross-sectioning, make a topographical map showing contours, roads, 
buildings, streams, fences and all other topographical features. The 
contours should be at intervals of 5 to 10 ft. See also Question 
No. 48. 

To caluclate the capacity find, by means of the planimeter, the 
horizontal area included within each contour. Then find capacity 
by average end area method. The capacity can also be calculated 
by plotting cross-sections of the reservoir site, and applying the aver- 
age end area method. 

47. State how, that is, describe the operation by which you would 
carry a line of survey through a city block covered with buildings 
and locate and measure all lot intersections as well as internal lot 
measurements. In other words, make a corhplete and accurate map 
of the block. 

Run an accurate auxiliary traverse around the block, tying same 
to the line of survey, establishing and referencing traverse points. 
Where possible these lines should be parallel to the building lines 
of the block. 

Obtain rectangular offsets to outside • corners of all buildings, 
curbs, fences, manholes, hydrants and all other features, noting, if 
possible, the stationing of same along the transit lines. Location 
may also be made by angle and distance. 



31 

Kun tie lines through alleys, doorways, windows or other open- 
ings in the buildings and obtain offsets to interior building corners, 
fence corners, lot intersections, etc. 

Measure the frontages of all buildings and lots. Sketch in note- 
book the plan of the block, showing all lot lines, lot corners, building 
lines and corners, party lines, if any ; also the plan of buildings, giv- 
ing all measurements and all other information necessary to plot sur- 
vey. Indicate character of buildings and number of stories, etc., in 
each. 

48. Describe fully the making of a topographical survey with a 
transit and stadia rod. 

The transit should be supplied with a compass and a vertical arc. 
The rods should be of the self -reading pattern, easily read from the 
instrument. 

Make all adjustments and note the index error of the vertical arc. 

Stake out a line about 600 ft. long, setting points 100 ft. apart. 
Set up the transit on one end of this line and take stadia readings 
on each point. From the data thus obtained determine the stadia 
interval of the instrument, taking into account the focal distance 
of the object glass. 

Run a traverse around the area to be surveyed, obtaining the 
lengths of the sides with the stadia, and their azimuths; establish 
B. M.'s around traverse. 

The azimuth of the first course may be found by an observation 
on Polaris or by traversing from known lines. To get the azimuth 
of the succeeding course set vernier on the azimuth of the back 
course sight on back station with the telescope normal, plunge tele- 
scope and turn on forward station. The reading on the limb 
will be the new azimuth. The backsights and foresights should be 
averaged for the lengths of the courses, and the lengths reduced 
to the horizontal. 

After the traverse has been closed set up on the transit stations, 
take shots to all prominent points, such as tops of ridges and bot- 
toms of hollows, fences, buildings, roads and streams, noting the 
azimuths, vertical angles and distances to each and filling in by 
sketches all other topographic details. Establish auxiliary transit 
stations wherever necessary. 

When a transit station is once occupied, care should be taken 
that all necessary data are obtained from it. 

By means of a stadia chart or table reduce the observed distance 
to the horizontal. The notes should be plotted as soon as possible 
while still fresh .in the mind. 

The contours are then interpolated between the points of known 
elevation. 



32 

49. Suppose you wish to determine the area of a piece of ground 
with a number of sides, which are entirely unobstructed, and you 
have only a chain or tape ; how can you do it ? 

From a point within, measure the distances to the corners of the 
piece of ^ound, dividing it into triangles. Measure all the sides. 
Th e area of each trian gle is found by the formula, Area = 
-[/ s (s — a) (s — b) (s — c) in which a, h and c are the sides and s 
half their sura. 

The sum of these triangles gives required area. 

60. What is the D. M. D. of a course? How obtained? 

The D. M. D of a course is twice the distance of its middle point 
to the meridian of the survey, or the sum of the meridian distances 
of its extremities. It is equal to the D. M. D. of the preceding 
course plus the departure of the preceding course plus the de- 
parture of the course itself. 

51. After the D. M. D. is found, how do you find the area ? 

Multiply the D. M. D. of each course by its corresponding lati- 
tude, take the algebraic sum of the products and divide it by 2. 
The result will be the area. 

52. What check is there after computing the D. M. D.'s of a 
survey ? 

The D. M. D. of the last course must be equal to its departure. 

53. How would you close an angular survey? 

Add up the interior angles in the survey. The sum of the 
angles should equal 180° X "ttie number of sides — 360°. 

The difference between this theoretical sum and the sum of the 
measured angles is the error of closure. 

Adjust the angles by distributing the error of closure equally 
among the several angles. Where it is possible to apportion weights 
to these angles the error should be distributed accordingly. 

If the error is large, mistakes should be looked for in the notes. 
Where magnetic bearings have been taken they should be compared 
with computed bearings. 

54. (a) Suppose you had the courses and length of all the sides 
of a piece of ground but one, could you compute the area and -how 
would you do it? (Z>) In so doing what assumption would be made? 

(a) Yes. 

Take the differences between the sums of the north and south 
latitudes and the sums of the east and west departures to obtain the 
latitude and departure of the missing course. Compute the area as 
explained in Question No. 57. 



33 

(h) In calculating the area the assumption is made that the 
work has been done without error; in other words, that the survey 
bala-nces perfectly. 

•^ 55. State a simple arithmetical rule for determining the angle 
subtended by a very small offset from a transit line at any given 
distance. State also the explanation of the rule. 

The small angle : 180° : : the small offset : dist. X 3.1416. The 
offset, being small, is assumed to be equal to an arc whose radius is 
equal to the distance. 

In any circle the arcs are measures of the angles they subtend, 
so that the arc is to the semi-circumference or 3.1416 X radius : : 
its angle : 180°. 

56. How are field errors determined? How distributed? Give 
all details, starting from notes. 

The errors are of two kinds : errors in angles and errors in dis- 
tances. The angular errors are determined and distributed as de- 
scribed in Question No. 53. 

After the angles are adjusted, the bearings are computed, the 
latitudes and departures of the courses tabulated, and their totals ob- 
tained. The differences between the northings and southings and 
between eastings and westings show- the error of closure, which is 
equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of these differ- 
ences. 

By comparing this error of closure to the entire perimeter, the 
degree of accuracy of the work is shown. 

The differences between the north and south latitudes and the 
east and west departures are then distributed among the latitudes 
and departures applying to each course an amount depending on 
the ratio of its length to the entire perimeter. If the error is large 
the computation should be looked into, and the notes examined. 

57. How great must error be to render it necessary to inquire as 
to causes, or to resurvey? 

With an ordinary transit and fairly careful work,- the error 
should not be more than ten seconds per angle, and the error of 
closure should not be more than one in ten thousand. If the errors 
exceed these limits the work should be inquired into. 

58. How would you calculate the area of a piece of land after 
the survey has been made ? 

Balance the survey. Compute the double meridian distance of 
the courses. Multiply double meridian distance of each course by 
its corresponding latitude. Take the algebraic sum of these prod- 
ucts, divide the sum by two and the result will be the area required. 



34 



59. The survey havirj? been made and the area calculated, how 
would you check the work graphically? 

Plot the survey by means of the computed co-ordinates. 

Check plotted angles and lengths of courses. These should agree 
with field measurements. 

The area of the plot is then checked by means of a planimeter. 

If co-ordinate paper is used, the area can be checked by counting 
squares. The polygon may also be cut up into triangles, whose areas 
can be calculated from scaled bases and altitudes. 

60. Give form of tables for balancing a survey. Explain its use. 



sta- 


Courses. 


DiF. Lat. 


Depabtuke. 


Balanced. 




-J- 
Area. 




tions. 


Bearings. 


Dist. 


N. 


S. 


E. 

-4- 


W. 


Lat. 

-2. .'^2 
-1-4.71 
--4.62 
— 2.49 
-4.32 


Dep. 


Area. 


A. 
B. 

C. 


S. 69° 15' E. 
N. 37° 15' E. 
N. 3 ° 30' W. 
S. 57° 45' W. 
S. 30° 00' VV, 


Ch. 
7.06 
5.93 
6.09 
4.65 
4.98 


4.63 


2.50 


6 60 
3.59 


'3!82 
3.93 
2.49 


+ 6.61 
-h3.60 

— 3.81 

— 3.92 

— 2.48 


6.61 
16.82 
16.61 
8.88 
2.48 


■■79;22' 
76.74 


16.66 


D. 
E. 


2.48 
4.31 




22. ii 
10.71 






28.02 


9.85 

9.29 


9.29 


10.19 


10.^^4 
10.19 






2 


155.96 

49.48 

106.48 


49.48 



Error in Lat. = .06; Error in Dep. = .05. 



Area = 53.24 sq. ch. 
= 4.324 Acres. 



r.rror of closure = It. ^^ = 0.0027 



2862 



lin; 



(Note: Frona Johnson's "Surveying.") 



The use of the table is fully explained by the survey calculated 
above. 

61. In plotting, which is better, to use bearing and distance con- 
tinually or to use sines and cosines? 

Sines and cosines. 



62. How is the error apportioned in plotting? 

Find, by scaling or calculation, the error in latitudes and de- 
partures. Then distribute this error among the courses by changing 
the latitude and departure according to the weights assigned to them. 
Plot the corrected points and join them, and the plat will close. 



63. How does the use of logarithms facilitate computati 
Give rule for finding characteristic. 



ons i 



35 



By changing the operations of multiplying and dividing into, 
adding and subtracting. The process of extracting roots becomes 
one of simple division and that of raising to powers becomes one of 
simple multiplication. 

The characteristic is equal to the number of places which the 
left hand most digit is removed from the unit's place. If to the 
right, it is minus; if to the left, it is plus, e. g., characteristic of 
6,432, = + 3, of .006432 = — 3. 

64. Give a sample of notes as you would record them in your note- 
book of a street half a mile long having several angles and crossing 
other streets. 



Character 8c Loca-t 
Le-ft- Hand 


■ion of Survey 
Paqe. 






Riqht 




Hand 


Page. 






x- 


^ay Ma. 


-.2,'(?S 


Name 
Men // 


5af 
7FaH-y 




\ 




















^ 


These 




1 
























t 


--, 




















Sun 


'ey of 


Ma/n 


St. 






A 


^ 




















^ 


\ 


Ap 


'' 


















\ 


\ 


k-' 







— 





- — 


— 


-yQ^- 


-- 




5fa. 


D/st 


An^/e 


Remi 


rrAs 






\ 


\ 






-<■ 


f 




K^^\ 








v^ 


0' 


\ 


It 


--^ 


n 


tu5t 




Va. 


\ 






\ 


w 


-\ 


\ 


V 


i- 
^ 


-< 




J^'' 


\ 
















\ 


\ 


\ 


\ 


.', 




\ 




V:^ 


^ 






\ 




\i^ 


f 


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"^v^ 


o 








Wn 


\ 


\ 


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^\ 


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\ - 


\ 


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P \ 








\ 


>^ \ 


\ 


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-•5 




,^ 






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y 






-'■' 


^■^ 


,-50 




3-^65.0 






Offset 


foR 








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l-^ 


■-'' 


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\ 


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<kA^ 


















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■^r> 






0^-20 


es5.?i 


/57^r^ 


Cuf 
9 


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: ij. 




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6^^ 


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Cut 


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_/rh, 


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w. 


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Offset 


fa ff. 










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36 

65. An area of ground is to be used as a borrow pit. It has been 
laid out by lines at right angles to each other at equal distances, and 
the cuts at each intersection determined. How would you deter- 
mine the cubical contents? 

Take the cut at each intersection as many times as there are 
partial areas adjoining it; add them all together and multiply by 
one-fourth area of a single rectangle. This gives volume in cubic 
feet. For volume in cubic yards divide by 27. 

Q6. What is the limit of error in chaining allowed in measure- 
ments on city streets ? 

In accurate base line measurements from .01 ft. to .02 ft. per 
1 000 ft. For secondary traverses and locations, .05 ft. to .1 ft. per 
1 000 ft. 

67. How many parts are there in any plane triangle and how 
many must be given in order to solve it? State the problems that 
may arise to find remaining parts. 

There are six parts and three must be given, at least one of 
which must be a side. The problems that may arise are : 
' 1. Two sides and an angle opposite one of them. 

2. Two sides and included angle. 

3. One side and two angles. 

4. Three sides. 

68. In which case is there more than one solution ? 

When two sides and an angle opposite one of them are given. 



(S35S6) 



APPENDIX. 



SOME USEFUL SUKYEYING EORMULAS. 



Note. — The collection of formulas included in this volume is 
not intended to be complete in any sense, but it contains a fairly 
comprehensive list of the more common formulas used in surveying 
with which candidates ought to be familiar, and it will serve as a 
ready reference to those preparing themselves for examinations. 

Loofarithms: 

log (a X &) = log a 4- log 5. 
log (a -f- 5) = log a — log h. 
log cd' =5 log a. 



log -/a 



log a -^h. 



Trigonometric Functions: 

Angle B A C =:= A', Angle G B A = B. 
CB = a,CA = h,AB = c. 

M K e 




Sin 


A = cos 


B= -z=a 

c 


Cos 


A = sin 


c 


Tan 


A = cot 


h 


Cot 


A = tan 


a 


Sec 


A = cosec 


B = l- = AB 


Cosec A = sec 


B=- = A G 

a 



when radius = 1. 



Yers A = 1 — cos A. 
Sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A. 
Cos 2 J. =1 — 2 sin^ J.. 

Sin'i A -- 



1 — 


cos 


A 


2 


1 + 


cos 


A 



IT 



g. 

c2 



CO 

Hi 







^ 






1 




1 




tH 




H 


1 


5i 








5^ 


^ 


H 


^; 


0) 


'J 


o 


« 


o 






V 


6 












































V 


6 


o 


i 


^ 




8 









1 










1 




ItH 






^ 




H 


5^ 




^ 




^ 




1 

i H 




^ 


1 




1 


i 


Tl 


§ 




i 


T-t 


} 


■^ 


ii 


11 


> 






> 




^ 






^ 







Ji 








T-t 


1 

+ 

^ 


5^ 

8 





!!." 




f H 




^il§ 




a 

c8 




a ■'' 


TH 




T-i 


fl ,n 




1 + 




i-i—i 




' y-i 




^ 




> 





h- 





5i 




1^ 






1 ^ 










n 




1". 






1 " 








o" 




1 ° 


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c 


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H 




i J^ 


jj 






5^ 








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c> 






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a 


H 


■ a 


a 


^ 




a 




^ 




1 




i» 


1 




^ 


m 
1 


i-< 




^ 




- 


^ 




1 


> 





■ 








* 












' 






«■ 




J^ 


h 


5^ 


H 


5^ 


% 




d 


V 










C 


03 


C 










t 




, « 




U 



Ill 

Solution of Plane Triangles. 
c 




Given J., B, a. Sought C, b, a. 
" C = 180° — (.1 + B). Use a:h ::&m A: sin J5. 
" A, 6, a. Sought B, C, c. Use a : & :: sin J. : sin J5. (two 

solutions). 
" C, a, h. Sought A, B, c. A -{- B = (180 — C) ; 

then use (a + &) : («—&):: tan -^ (A -{- B) : tan - (J. _ 5), 



also C == \^ a- -f '-'-' 



'2 ab cos C. 



Given a, h, c. Assume s = y- (a + & + c). 



Then sin ^ A 



# 



^) (-s — (-■) 



be 



Mensuration. 
Area Triangle = ^ (base X altitude). 

= s/ s {s ■ — a) {s — b) (s — c). 

=z ^ (ah sin 0). 
" Parallelogram = base X altitude. 
" Trapezoid ^ sum of bases X ^ altitude. 



Trapezium = diagonal X ^ sum of altitudes. 



Circles: 

Circumference 

Area 

Length of arc 
Area of sector 



= 7t X diameter = 3.1416 d. 



— -rr v2 — 



1 



number of degrees in arc 
■ 360 



X circumference 



number of degrees in central angle 
360^ 



X area. 



Area of segment = area of sector — area triangle formed by 

chord of segment and radii. 

Area of circular ring = it (B^ — '?'^), B and r being radii of large and 

small circles, respectively. 

Ellijjse: 

It 
Area = —- D d, D and cZ are the major and minor axes= 



Circumference (ai^proximate) = tt 



i)2 ' cr- 



Eegular Polygons: 

Area = i perimeter X perpendicular distance from centre to any 
side. 



Irregular Polygons — To Find Area: 

Divide polygon into triangles, and find sum of the areas of these 
triangles. 

Or plot polygon on cross-section paper and count squares included 
within perimeter, 

Or use a planimeter. 

Prism or Cylinder: 

Surface = areas of 2 bases + (perimeter of base X altitude). 
Volume = area of base X altitude. 

Pyramid or Cone: 

Surface = area of base + (perimeter X I slant height). 
Volume = area of base X \ altitude. 

Frustum of Pyramid or Cone: 

_, - ^ ^ , , sum of perimeters of bases .. , 
Surface = areas of 2 bases + ^ X slant 

height. 

altitude 

Volume = (JLj -\- A.-^-^- V A^ A.,) o , in which J.^ and A^ = 

areas of the bases. 



Or, by Prismoidal Formula: 

section midway between Aj^ and A^ 



-r^ 1 A A , , . altitude , . , , /. 

\ olume = [A^^ A^ + 4 A^^^ ^ — -^ m which ^.4,,^ = area oi 



For ordinary earthwork computation, use average end area 
method: 

Volume = ( ^ ^ o ^ " ) ^' ^^ which A^^ and A2 are the end sec- 
tions and I the distance between them. 
Wedge : 

Volume = ^ X Hength of edge + twice the length of back) 
X perpendicular aistance of edge to back X width 
of back. 
Sphere : 

Surface = 7t I^. 
Volume = i 7C D^. 

D =z diameter of great circle. 
Latitude of a course = distance X cosine of bearing. 
Departure of a course = " X sine of bearing. 
Double meridian distance of a course (D. M. D.) = D. M. D. of 
preceding course + departure of preceding course 
4- departure of course itself. 
Area of survey = ^ algebraic sum of products of the D. M. D.'s 

by their corresponding latitudes. 
Error of closure = \/ latitude ^ + departure 2. 

Stadia Formula (for Horizontal Sights) : 

D = correct distance from instrument to rod. 
/ = focal length of object glass. 

c = distance from center of instrument to object glass. 
s = intercept on rod. 
i = distance between cross-wires. 

Correction for Curvature and Eefraction : 

C = I D^. 

D = distance in miles. 

C = correction in feet (to be added). 

J? =10. F=C- B = ij)\ 

* i 

Jt = correction for refraction (to be subtracted). 
F = resultant correction for both curvature and refraction (to be 
added). 
Curves : 

sin D 



VI 





T = 


: J? sin 1 A 




C = 


2 B sin J). 




^ = 


c- 

B 




^\ = 


2B' 




m = 


8B' 




L = 


lOoA 


L 


= length of curve. 




D 


= degree of curve. 




B 


= radius of curve. 




d 


= deflection angle. 




T 


= tangent distance. 




A 


= central angle. 




^\ 


= chord deflection. 




^\ 


= tangent " 





m = middle ordinate. 
C = length of chord. 

Allowable Errors in Chaining: 

With link chain 1 ft. in 500 traverses should close 1 in 1 000. 
With graduated tape, rough work 1 foot in 2 000, 1 in 5.000. 
Fairly accurate work, 1 ft. in 5 000, 1 in 10 000. 
Very careful work, 1 ft. in 15 000, 25 000. 
With spring balance and compensating attachment, fairly accurate 
work 1 ft. in 20 000, 30 000. 
Yery accurate work 1 ft. in 40 000, 60 000. 

Allowable Errors in Angular Work with Transit: 
Rough work, 10 seconds per angle. 



or less. 



Ordinary work, 


5 


u, 


(■i 


, Accurate, 


2 


li 


u 


Yery accurate. 


1 


u 


li 


Allowable Errors in 


Leveling: 




With hand level 








With accurate level. 


rough 


work. 


Ordinary work. 






Yer}^ accurate b 


ench levels, 



1 ft. per mile. 
.1 X \/ distance in miles. 
.05 X \/ distance in miles. 



.03 X V distance in miles. 



EEBATA— VOL. H. 




Pac© ^, 



Page 45, 




Page m, gpa^itiom \X M 
mmiltm irerttioil 
@8, qprfL^m ST, lime S: 
®f two 
Page T3, qraL^tti®m T9, lime 2: ^CM iflbe 
tBae IbxD.ttom.'^ 

Page T3, limie S: **ll«ll]hs."' skDimld i^id '^KW 

Page T3, luie M: -^^©menite^ skDuild 

Page 75, qraL^ti®m 8S, #(flb lime fimm lb®ttom: *^mit 




Pagell4qM^tti®mlT3,lime3: ^arlbei^ slhi®iidld fee 
Page 135, IMi lime: ^A item ImsT sUn^mld loid ^j©® 



Page 139: (Area) f dbemld fee (Aim) 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

CIVIL SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES 

Vol. 1. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 
TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 

Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER 

Vol.. III. DRAUGHTSMAN, and INSPECTOR 



VOL. II. PART I 
ASSISTANT ENGINEER 

RAPID TRANSIT COMMISSION 



INDEX 

Previous Examination Papers, pp. 4 to 20 
Typical Questions and Answers, pp. 21 to 48 



NEW YORK 
The Engineering News Publishing Company 
1906. 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The ENGiNEERiNa News Publishing Company. 



PBEFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" which have been included 
in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical in word- 
ing with those actually given at the examinations, as copies of the 
original papers are not readily procurable, but they do embody the 
substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," the 
answer? indicate in a general way only what is required of the can- 
didate, and are not intended to be perfect and complete, as reason- 
able variance of opinion may exist as to what is the best answer in 
many cases, owing to differences in interpretation of the question 
and in education and experience. 

The general plans, details, specifications and methods pursued in 
the construction of the New York Rapid Transit Subway are fully 
described and illustrated in the volumes of Engineering News 
covering the period of construction. 

In order to perpetuate the value of this book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing for 
the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Tj^ical Questions and 
Answers" have been interleaved, to provide space for notes, sketches 
and additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



PKELIMINAEY EXAMINATION, 
EAPID TKANSIT COMMISSION. 



Technical Paper. 

New York, October 9, 1899. 



Salary, $1 200. 



1. (a) What do you understand by the term "angle of repose'' of 
earth? (h) Where is the center of pressure in a retaining wall, 
earth level with top ? 

2. (a) Within what limits should the line of thrust come in the 
abutment of an arched bridge to insure stability? (?))What should 
be the proportion of "headers" to "stretchers" used in a retaining 
wall? 

3. Wliat pressure per square foot can safely be placed on the fol- 
lowing materials when ground is continually wet: (a) clay, (h) 
loam, (c) gravel? 

4. What is the difference between refraction and reflection and 
what is the effect of the former on the line of sight of a level? 

5. In running a line of levels with sights 1 600 ft., what method 
would you use to insure accuracy and allow for refraction and 
curvature ? 

6. What are the physical properties of cast iron, wrought iron 
and wrought steel, that make them useful in engineering works ? 
State briefly how they should be tested and what uses they are best 
fitted for. 

7. Give essential points in specification for timber piles and pile 
driving. 

. 8. What are the various ways of using and shaping sheet piling 
to keep water away from work? 

9. What is hydraulic cement and how should different samples be 
tested ? 

10. Write monthly estimate for somie public work, giving at least 
six items, carry out the arithmetic, assume prices that you believe 
correct for such work, show amount retained, previous payments, etc. 



MATHEMA.TICAL PaPER. 

1. Given a culvert ; what will be the cubic feet per second of water 
reaching the culvert draining 1 000 acres ? Assume formula as fol- 
lows : 

Q = Cubic feet per second reaching culvert. 

c = Proportion of rainfall. 

y = Painfall per hour in inches. 

s = Slope in feet per 1 000 ft. 

a = Number of acres drained. 

Assume values for c, y, and s according to your judgment. 

2. If 12 men shovel 90 yd. of earth in one hour and a half, how 
many men will be required to shovel 2 500 yd. of earth in ten hours? 

3. Extract square root of 49 783.96. 

4. Given a pair of rafters, span 50 ft., angle 30° ; what will be 
the length of rafters and strain on each? 

Report Paper. 

Write a report, covering at least two pages, on some important 
work, stating design selected, reason for selecting it and report 
progress in the work up to a certain period. Give such information 
as the chief engineer would expect to find in such a report. 

Experience Paper. 

1. Have you pursued a course of study in any school or college 
which fits you for the position of assistant engineer ; if so, give length 
of course ? Did you graduate or receive a degree or diploma ? 

2. Have you ever taken a course of study with an engineer ? 

3. Have you any mechanical experience ? 

4. State what experience you have had, especially in public work. 

5. State any further experience that you may think important. 



6 

PKELIMINAEY EXAMINATION, 
KAPID TKANSIT COMMISSION. 



Technical Paper. 

New York, May 14, 1900. 
Salary, $1 200. 

1. Sketch a retaining wall, showing the angle of repose of earths 
{h) Show the Kne bounding the prism of maxiniuni -pr^sure. (c) 
State the relation of the vertical angles bounded by those two lines. 
(d) Draw the diagram of forces acting upon the wall and state the 
position the resultant must take in order to insure stability. 

2. (a) In what order do earths arrange themselves as to thrust,. 
stating that with the least thrust first? (h) State the several con- 
ditions that will change the amount of thrust of earth. 

3. (a) In the flow of water through channels and conduits, state 
the several causes of resistance to flow, {h) What is the principal 
cause of resistance to flow in long pipes ? 

4. What is meant by "mean hydraulic radius"? 

5. (a) In a rectangular wall, at what point is the pressure of 
water applied? (h) How would you obtain the total pressure of 
water against the wall ? 

6. What is meant by "limit of elasticity^' and what is the relation 
of the limit of elasticity to ultimate strength in steel and iron? 

Y. How will riveted joints fall in thin and thick steel and iron? 

8. What is meant by the degree of a curve? 

9. Having given the degree of a curve, how would you lay it out 
on the ground? 

10. What instruments do you consider essential and desirable tcy 
make a survey of the subway? 

11. What error would you expect in running levels a distance of a 
mile in a crowded street? 

12. (a) How would you establish transit points? (h) State in 
this the estabhshing of transit points on block pavement? 

13. If the line of the subway runs through several blocks and 
underneath the houses, how would you make a survey showing ac- 
curately the intersection of the line of the tunnel with all property 
lines? 



14. What are the principal difficulties in making a survey through 
the city streets ? 

15. Show a specimen form of note-book for a survey of the sub- 
way under the streets through two blocks entirely built up. 

Mathematical Paper. 

1. Extract the square root of 10 873.2475. 

2. What is the weight of a cast-iron column whose outside di- 
ameter is 12 in., thickness | in. and length 13 ft. 6 in., allowing lli% 
additional for the base and cap ? 

3. A load of 70| tons is transmitted by an iron pedestal 3 ft. 
square upon a granite pier; the weight upon the earth under the 
pier shall not exceed 1 760 lb. per sq. ft. ; the steps of the granite 
courses shall not exceed 1 ft.; the thickness of the courses is 2 ft.; 
what are the dimensions of the bottom course and what are the con- 
tents in cubic yards of the granite pier? 

4. A train moving at the rate of 36 miles an hour is three-quarters 
of an hour ahead of another train moving at the rate of 42 miles an 
hour ; in what length of time will the second train overtake the first ? 

5. A rectangle has an area of 60 sq. ft., its perimeter is 34 ft.; 
find the length of the sides. 

Report Paper. 

Write a report and specification for refilling the top of the sub- 
way in tunnel and paving the surface of the street with granite 
blocks. 



8 

PKELIMINAKY EXAMINATION, 
EAPID TKANSIT COMMISSION. 



Technical Paper. 

New York, May 19, 1900. 
Salary, $1 200. 

1. In a retaining wall with a load of earth filling, how far back 
from the wall will a load have no effect and why? 

2. In what manner do retaining walls fail? State different con- 
ditions. 

3. When trench for wall has been dug to right depth, what is the 
next step? 

4. In formulas for flow of water in channels, how is fall in water 
surface taken account of? 

5. In a tank filled with water, find stress in hoop 1 ft. from 
the bottom. 

6. Sketch uniformly loaded beam. Show reaction of support in 
terms W, L, D, etc., and moment at center. 

7. State distinction between long and short columns and state 
how each fails. 

8. Two tangents to be joined by curve; show what field notes 
should be taken and how the elements of curve are determined. 

9. Describe method of transferring line from surface through 
shaft to tunnel. 

10. Describe best method of fixing center line and grade in 
tunnel. 

11. Give sketch of record notes for survey for subway for location 
of center line and property lines through two built-up blocks. 

12. How should the work be left at night on the end of a sewer 
under construction? 

13. Sketch center of 20-ft. arch (dimensions approximate). 

14. A heavily loaded column rests on a granite block, 18 in. by 
18 in., this block being the top of a pier 3 ft. high resting on earth, 
pier to be stepped off in three steps 1 ft. in depth; how would you 
find the width of each step ; give reasons ? 

15. Give precautions to be used in laying brick work when great 
strength is required. 



KAPID TEANSIT COMMISSION. CLASS (B). 

May 26th, 1900. 
Salary, $1 500. 

1. Give age, technical education, and name of institution of 
which you are a graduate, if any, and name all positions you have 
held, with length of service and character of work. 

2. Name all precaution for sighting a line in a tunnel and what 
is the best means of eliminating errors in prolonging a line in a 
tunnel ? 

3. What information beside center line and grade are necessary 
before starting work on a tunnel? 

4. If center line runs under blocks of houses, what information is 
needed other than in above question? 

5. How could filling of trench over arch affect the stability of the 
latter? 

6. What would an inspector keep record of: (a) On tunnel 
Avork? (h) On elevated railroad structure? 

7. What methods and precautions are necessary in excavating 
rock, including blasting and all details in vicinity of houses, and 
w^hat when M'ater pipes are present? 

8. Give a sketch of sheet piling and timbering with all dimen- 
sions for trench 25 ft. deep for sewer, external diameter 4 ft. 

9. State all conditions for securing best work in masonry construc- 
tion (closeness of joints and pointing of blocks not meant). 

10. (a) Give full description of operation of mixing concrete by 
hand, (h) Describe any mechanical mixer with which you are 
familiar. 

11. Upon what does bearing power of piles depend; what pre- 
cautions should be used in driving piles, and how would you find 
safe bearing power theoretically? 

12. (a) How would you unite a new layer of concrete with old? 
{!)) What is gained by storing Portland cement before using it? 

13. Give safe bearing powers of: (a) Gravel, (h) Good clean 
sand, (c) Loam? 

14. What is the condition of arch sliding at the springing and 
in what form of arch is this most likely to occur? 

15. What condition of failure of rectangular wall is shown by 
(a) vertical cracks, (&) forward movement as a mass, (c) horizontal 
cracks and bulging? And what remedies would you use in each 
case ? 

16 to 20. Give report and careful sketch of design for foundation 
of subway, where ground is such as to require piles or timber con- 
struction. State the best means of controlling flow of quick-sand 
where such is encountered in trench. Give form for estimate of 
quantities and prices for each item. 



10 

KAPID TRANSIT COMMISSION. CLASS "C." 

May 26th, 1900. 
Salary, $1 800. 

1. Give date and place of graduation from technical college, if 
any ; place, length and character of each important engagement since. 

2. Under what conditions as to nearness of excavation, depth, 
character of soil, etc., would you consider it necessary to underpin 
buildings on the line of subway ? 

3. Give essential features of process of underpinning a large 
water main so as not to interfere with its use. 

4. Describe briefly operation of supporting and moving a large 
water main so as not to interfere with its use. 

5. Describe alteration in line of a large brick sewer and method 
of caring for the flow meanwhile. 

6. How would you arrange reports for your inspectors or other 
subordinates so as to obtain correctly the actual cost of any portion 
of the work? 

7. Give an itemized example of this: (a) Ironwork, (h) stone 
masonry, (c) concrete. 

8. Give all the points to be observed in the use of asphalt in water- 
proofing to insure compactness, freedom from blow-holes, thorough 
adhesion and sound work. 

9. Describe the distinctive characteristics of foundations best 
adapted to the following sub-soil conditions: (a) Stiff gravel, (h) 
wet, soft mud becoming stiffer as depth increases, (c) soft mud with 
hard gravel 15 ft. beneath, (d) wet but confined and compact sand. 

10. What are the advantages of a grillage of layers of steel rails 
set at right angles in concrete for a footing of a retaining wall? 
Show design for such a footing. 

11. How would you provide for expansion and contraction in a 
long concrete retaining wall? 

12. How many barrels of cement, yards of sand and tons of 
broken stone are required for 10 yd. of concrete of proportions 1, 3 
and 5? 

' 13. Give precautions to be taken for the health of assistants or 
laborers working under pneumatic pressure at a depth of 75 ft. 

14. What is meant by "cut and cover" method in open cut con- 
struction and what is gained by it? 

15. (a) What is the theoretical method of determining the safe 
bearing power of piles? (h) What modifications under different con- 
ditions? (c) Give practical method of determining the bearing 
power of piles. 

16 to 20. Make a report and careful sketches of a proposed method 
for carrying the tunnel under the Harlem River. State what would 
be done in passing through different materials such as silt, clay or 
rock. Give itemized notes for estimate with approximate value of 
items. 



11 

ASSISTAJ^T ENGINEEK, RAPID TRANSIT. 
Salary, $1 200. 1901. 

1. Make a rough sketch of bracing, etc., in digging a double shaft 
10 by 20 by 60 ft. deep. Give dimensions. 

2. Make a sketch of a center for an arch with 20-ft. span, giving 
dimensions. 

3. Describe the method of tunneling by shield. 

4. Also by blasting. 

5. Describe the method of triangulation to locate a tunnel, as 
East River tunnel and approach. 

6. What are the principal requirements in relaying an asphalt 
pavement ? 

7. In relaying block pavement ? 

8. What is done with water in a tunnel below the level of a 
sewer ? 

9. How would you get a sight in a tunnel ? 

10. (a) How is a line prolonged accurately? (h) How is an angle 
turned accurately? 

11. What are the requirements for substantial stone masonry ? 

12. Under what conditions can wood be used in permanent con- 
structions ? 

13. Where and how would you locate a bench mark and point in a 
tunnel? 

14. If a brick sewer is to be replaced by a number of cast-iron 
pipes so as to pass under a subway, how are their size and number 
determined ? 

15. What do the specifications call for in regard to the storing of 
material ? 



12 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEK, GKADE "A." 

December 8th, 1902. 
Salary, $1 200. 

1. How would you lay out work for subway trench when work is 
in open cut? 

2. (a) How would you give grade and line in tunnel? (h) How 
would you proceed when artificial light is used? 

3. Give force and material account for keeping track of work 
from day to day. 

4. How would you determine spacing of iron bents on curve? 

5. When water is being pumped from beneath foundations, how 
would you determine. whether or not settlement is likely to occur? 

6. How would the engineer proceed to inspect roof of a rock tun- 
nel after a blast? 

7. A single large sewer is replaced by three smaller ones; is it 
sufficient to make new area equal to old? Explain fully. 

8. Sketch a timber center for semi-circular brick arch, 25-ft. span. 

9. Give quick rough test for cement in field, without the use of 
machine. 

10. What are the requirements for good work in building a 
brick sewer? 

11. How would you inspect a job of riveting? 

12. For driving piles in quicksand, is it better to use quick, light 
blows, or slow, heavy ones ? Explain reasons. 

13. In back filling trench, what is the best arrangement of 
shovelers and rammers to get the best results? 

14. How is work in tunnel conducted? (New York Subway.) 

15. Write a careful report on a pile foundation and masonry pier 
for a bridge. 

Mathematics. 

1. Extract square root of 30 001.94. 

2. Four numbers whose sum equals 900; the first plus 2, the 
second minus 2, two times the third, and the fourth divided by 2, are 
equal. What are the numbers ? 



I 



13 



3. A trapezoidal field; parallel sides 18 ft. and 28 ft. The per- 
pendicular distance between them is 42 ft. How far from the 
longer parallel side is a line dividing the field into two parts of 
equal area? 

4. Two numbers whose sum is 6. The sum of their fifth powers 
IS 1 056. What are the numbers ? 



14 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEK. 
Salary, $1200. April, 1903. 

1. As applying to Rapid Transit Railroad construction, describe 
how you would transfer a bench mark from a point 200 ft. off the 
line to and down a tunnel shaft to a point 400 ft. within the tunnel. 

2. The same for a transfer of a transit line to a P. C. in the 
tunnel. 

3. Show by a sketch and describe a typical vertical section of a 
double track tunnel where it is necessary to keep close to the surface, 
including important dimensions and indications of materials used. 

4. Show by plan and horizontal cross-section just above the track 
(double) the arrangement of answer to (3) assuming curve to a 
tangent at right angle. 

5. State or show by sketch why side clearances on curves in tun- 
nels must be greater than on tangents and calculate how much for a 
60-ft. car with 40-ft. center to center of trucks. 

6. Describe how the standard railroad track is best maintained 
in line and grade. 

7. Describe "damp proofing" and its method of application. 

8. Describe the method of transmission of electrical power by a 
third rail. State its advantages and disadvantages, (h) What are 
the important details of mixing and laying concrete to secure good 
work? (This does not refer to proportions of material.) 

9. Assume data you consider reasonable and determine the ex- 
ternal pressure on a steel tunnel tube 12 ft. in diameter running be- 
neath 100 ft. of water, supported above bottom. 

10. Outline specifications for stone and laying of first-class ashlar 
granite masonry in a heavy retaining wall. 

11. State what you know of concrete steel and its advantages. 

12. How is condensation prevented on roofs and station walls? 

13. State everything necessary to secure the best cement mortar 
joints in brickwork, such as important sewer construction. 

14. Show by sketch and description the method of sheeting a 
tunnel shaft (vertical) 12 ft. wide, 60 ft. deep throughout. 

15. Write a report of not less than three nor more than four pages 
concerning the examination and method of shoring and placing in a 
sound condition a building which had partly settled due to excava- 
tion of R. T. tunnel. 



15 

Report. 

Write a report of not less than two nor more than three pages on 
the probable causes of cracking of the roof and settling of the side- 
walks of a tunnel (subway). 

Mathematics. 

1. Extract square root to four decimals of 629,514,455.084. 

2. The center line of a portion of a circular street subtends an 
angle of 30° at the center, the raidus being 530. If the street is 
60 ft. wide, find the area in square yards of the portion of the street. 

3. Add the following, giving the answer in feet and decimals: 
6'-7i"; 7'-3A"; 8'-2|f "; 11 - 7|"; 21- 11,^"; 0'-6.5"; 

12' _ 7". 35. 

4. Find the volume of masonry in the roof of a tunnel 2 ft. thick 
with a semi-elliptical section with radii of 36 ft. and 20 ft., the por- 
tion being 100 ft. long. 



16 

ASSISTANT ENGINEER, 
RAPID TRxiNSIT COMMISSION. 



June 8, 1904. 
Salary, $1 200. 

1. What are the precautions necessary to accurately measure a 
line, such as a base line for a triangulation survey ? 

2. What are the important points to be observed by a leveler in 
doing accurate leveling'^ 

3. Same for a rodman. 

4. State in their order the adjustments of a transit which also 
has an attached bubble for leveling. 

5. Except for base line measurements, describe how an important 
triangulation would be done across the East River for the purposes 
of tunnel construction. 

6. In designing of coursed ashlar masonry retaining walls, state 
briefly the theory of pressure and the methods of calculation. 

7. In the construction of the same, state the precautions neces- 
sary to minimize the pressure and to secure sound and permanent 
work. 

8. In concrete work, what are the important points: (a) in fix- 
ing the proportions; (h) in mixing; (c) in placing — all for high- 
class work. 

9. Outline briefly the principles involved in the reinforcement of 
concrete-steel. 

10. Show by sketch, with dimensions, a pile foundation for heavy 
masonry walls. 

11. Describe briefly a good roadbed and track construction suit- 
able for Rapid Transit subway. 

12. State the prismoidal formula and illustrate its use by cross- 
section of an earth railroad embankment. 

13. Show a monthly contractor's estimate covering open cut earth 
and rock excavation, concrete footing, brick masonry, steel built 
columns and beams; use approximate ruling prices. 

14. Describe the method of tunnel construction in gravel and clay 
60 ft. below water level. 



17 

15. Show by sketches, giving general dimensions and size, the 
method of construction of the lumber work of a double tunnel shaft 
8 by 20 ft. and 60 ft. deep, in earth. 

Eeport. 

Write a report of not less than two nor more than three pages on 
the probable cracking of the roof and settling of the side walls of a 
tunnel. 



18 

PKOMOTION EXAMINATION FOE ASSISTANT ENGINEER 
OF THE EAPID TRANSIT COMMISSION. 



December 14, 1905. 
Salary, $1 200. 

1. Transfer center line from surface to bottom of shaft 15 ft. 
wide, 20 ft. deep. 

2. In measuring a long distance with a 100-ft. tape, what five pre- 
cautions are necessary to get accurate work? 

3. Subway running through street where two-track surface road 
and elevated structure are located. How will you support the street 
and "L" columns so as not to interrupt traffic on road; "L" columns 
set on curb 6 ft. inside of retaining walls of subway. 

4. What is the relation between two rails on a transverse section 
of track on curve? Give reasons. 

5. The subway crosses a 10-ft. circular sewer with a 0.5% grade, 
the sub-grade of subway 2 ft. above invert of sewer. How would 
you provide for sewerage without diminishing capacity ? 

6. What is the relation between velocities in circular pipes full, 
nine- tenths full, one-half full, one-quarter full? 

7. What precautions would you take in blasting rock in open 
trench for the protection of adjoining property and persons? 

8. What precautions should be taken in mixing and placing con- 
crete (a) in ordinary foundation, (h) reinforced concrete arch, (c) 
when concrete is mixed with temperature below 30° Fahr. ? 

9. What precautions should be taken when assembling steel to 
make a good job ? 

10. How would you set stone bases for columns and what pre- 
cautions ? 

11. How would you set granite block pavement on concrete base ? 

12. How would you prepare concrete for asphalt and what special 
precautions should be taken? 



19 

13. Figure thickness for a steel pipe 300 lb. pressure, 24 in. di- 
ameter, steel at 60 000 lb., factor of safety, five. 

14. In back filling trench, what precautions are necessary to pre- 
vent or minimize future settling? 

16. How would you prepare metal for painting and in what con- 
dition of weather should paint not be applied? 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



CIVIL SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



ASSISTANT ENGINEEK, 
RAPID TRANSIT COMMISSION. 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

1. What is the best way to fix the center line in tunnel? 

Where the tunnel is in rock, by drilling holes in the roof and driv- 
ing wooden or metal plugs provided with hooks, from which plumb 
bobs are suspended. Where timber bents are required to support 
the roof, nails or hooks may be driven in the timbers to fix the 
center line. 

2. How would you carry the center line down a shaft and into 
tunnel? Explain every step and everything required. 

The center line is first run on the surface, points being set very 
accurately, and repeatedly checked on both sides of the shafts. 
These points should be of permanent character. Horizontal cleats 
are fastened to the shaft timbers and the center line marked on them. 
Heavy plumb bobs weighing about 35 lb. are suspended from these 
points by fine piano wires. The bobs are steadied by being im- 
mersed in oil. The distance between these wires should be as large 
as the shaft will permit. 

Set up transit in tunnel accurately on line with these two sus- 
pended wires and prolong the line, setting points ahead or behind as 
required, "double centering" with the instrument. 

3. (a) When in tunnel how would you establish lines and grades ? 
(h) How would you prolong the same where artificial light is re- 
quired ? 

(a) Center lines are established in the roof of the tunnel as de- 
scribed in Question No. 1; sometimes in the bottom (where con- 
ditions permit). 

Grades are established by marking points on the side walls or on 
ledges a whole number of feet above the grade of the tunnel. 

(See also Q. No. 6.) 

(h) Where artificial light is required, the sights and instrument 
are illuminated mth a candle, lamp or electric light provided for the 
purpose, the ordinary method of prolonging lines being used. 

Special sights with illuminated slits set accurately on line may be 
used for alignment. 

4. How would you mark center line of tunnel ? (a) In open field, 
(h) on block pavement, (c) on asphalt pavement, (d) on rock, (e) 
in tunnel. 



23 



(a) By means of large hardwood stakes driven firmly in ground, 
line being marked by tacks. If the center line falls on exposed rock 
surfaces, suitable marks are cut in same, such as + A -i- h. Stone 



t-1- 



monuments or concrete blocks with copper bolts should be set about 
every half mile. 

(Z)) On block pavement, cut marks on the blocks as indicated 
above, or drive spikes in the joints, or blocks may be removed and 
spikes or stakes driven in foundation and recovered. 

(c) Drive spikes through the asphalt or remove section of asphalt, 
drive stake underneath and replace with brick or loose material. 

(d) By marks as designated in (a) or by metal plugs set in holes 
drilled in the rock. 

(e) For marking center line in tunnel see Question No. 1. 

5. How could you carry the center line of tunnel (a) across the 
East River, (h) down a shaft and into tunnel? 
By triangulation as follows . 




A B is portion of center line already established on one side of 
river. 

Prolong line to E on opposite shore by double centering, making 
several trials. This fixes a point on line on the opposite shore. 

The stationing of this point is obtained by triangulation. (See 
diagram.) The distance, A B, is accurately known. C and D are 
selected to give well conditioned triangles. 

Read the angles as shown by the arrows. Calculate B C and 
B D and then B E, from which the stationing of E is obtained. The 
line is then prolonged from E in the usual manner. 
(?>) See Question Iso. 2. 



24 

6. Where and how would you locate the bench mark in a tunnel? 

In rock tunnels bench marks should be located on ledges in the 
side walls, where they can be seen from both directions and not apt 
to be disturbed by the tunnel operations. 

In earth tunnels, or in rock tunnels where timber is used to 
support the roof, spikes are driven near the foot of the most rigid 
posts, observing that the rod can be held vertically on same and that 
the rod can be seen from both directions. They should be well 
marked and described for identification. 

7. As applying to Eapid Transit subway construction, describe 
how you would transfer a bench mark from a point 200 ft. off the 
line to and down a tunnel shaft to a point 400 ft. within the tunnel. 

First transfer the bench mark to a point on one of the shaft tim- 
bers at the surface. With the aid of a steel tape, this bench mark 
is transferred to the bottom of the shaft at a point vertically be- 
neath, the bottom being prepared for the purpose. This tape meas- 
urement should be repeated several times and the mean taken, thou- 
sandths being estimated. Using this new point as a bench mark, the 
levels are run in the usual manner, establishing bench marks as con- 
ditions require. Artificial light should be employed if necessary. 

8. The same for the transfer of a transit line to a P. C. in tunnel. 
Transfer the tangent from the surface to the tunnel as described 

in Question No. 2. The stations at the points of suspension of the 
bobs should be very accurately determined and this stationing ap- 
plied to the points vertically beneath at the bottom of the shaft. 
The P. C. is then located in the usual way from the points thus 
established. 

9. Besides the location of property lines and center line, explain 
what a complete examination of the tunnel route should consist of, 
especially under buildings and where tunnel crosses a stream. 

The examination should show the character of the material along 
the route of the tunnel, whether rock, earth, made land, etc., as de- 
termined by numerous borings ; all underground obstructions, such 
as sewers, water and gas mains, electric conduits, etc.; character of 
pavements; nature and extent and depth of building foundations 
and the underlying material; the character of the buildings, their 
height and construction. Understreams, the examination should show 
high and low water range, the depth at the bottom, the character of 
the material in the bed of the stream to prescribed depths, deter- 
mined by borings. 

10. When the rapid transit road is to be in open cut, how would 
you lay out the work previoiis to beginning the excavation? 



25 

Run an offset line, preferably parallel to the center line of the 
tunnel. This offset line should be outside of the neat lines of the 
-excavation and where not likely to be disturbed by the work. 

Offsets to the center line, from the house line, the curb line, or 
from the offset line itself, are marked on the face of the curb, side- 
walk or other suitable place for the gnidance of the foremen, as also 
the depth of cut to subgrade of excavation. 

11. Where two tangents are to be joined by a curve, state what 
ffeld notes are taken and generally what elements of curve are 
found ? 

Notes taken: 

Bearing of tangents. 

Angle of intersection of tangents. 

Sta. at P. I. 

Stations occupied by instrument. 

The following elements of the curve are found: 

Degree of curve. 

Radius of curve. 

Length of curve. 

Deflection angles. 

Tangent distances. 

Stas. of P. T. and P. C. 

12. What is the difference between "refraction" and "reflection" 
as applied to light, and how does the former affect the line of sight 
taken through a level? 

See Leveler. Vol. I, Part III. 

>L 13. Suppose you had in leveling to take 1 600 ft. sights ; how can 
you do it with reasonable accuracy and eliminatie effects of curvature 
and refraction? 

By taking equal back and foresights and repeating and averaging 
rod readings. 

14. Why is not running the lines by the magnetic needle an ac- 
curate method? 

Because the graduations on compass box are not adapted for 
accurate reading, and because local attraction and magnetic dis- 
turbances affect the needle. 

15. What is the reason, if any, for taking the magnetic bearing 
of lines in making a survey? 

As a check on the angles measured between courses of the survey. 



26 



16. What is the method for calculating areas from traverses ? 

Compute the double meridian distances of the courses and mul- 
tiply them by their respective latitudes. Take the algebraic sum of 
these products and divide by two. 

17. What is the greatest allowable error in precise leveling 4 
miles ? 

About .05. 

18. What is a fair closure of 20 angles in a traverse? 
One minute. 

19. What is your method of calculating earthwork? 

For ordinary calculations use the average end area method. 
This consists of computing areas of cross-sections taken at suitable 
stations, averaging these areas successively, multiplying by their cor- 
responding distances apart, and adding the products. 

20. Give the safe bearing power of gravel, good, clean sand, loam, 
clay, hardpan, rock. 

Gravel 5 tons per sq. ft. 

Good, clean sand 4 

Loam 1 

Dry clay. , 3 

Wet clay 2 

Hardpan 8 

Rock in ledges 36 

Rock in beds 240 



21. (a) In what order do earths arrange themselves as to thrust, 
stating that with the least thrust first? (h) State the several con- 
ditions that will change the amount of thrust of earth. 

(a) (1) Compact gravel, (2) dry clay, (3) moist earth, (4) dry 
sand, (5) wet clay. 

(h) Earth thrust will be changed by presence of water in back- 
ing, vibration and jar due to traffic, superimposed loads on earth 
backing, frost, settlement and manner of depositing the backing. 

22. In taking loamy earth from a borrow pit, what difference in 
cubical contents will there be between the borrow pit and the com- 
plete fill? 

About 12 per cent. 

23. What is meant by "limit of elasticity," and what is the rela- 
tion of the limit of elasticity to ultimate strength in steel and iron ? 

The limit of elasticity is the point up to which the strain of the 
material is proportional to the applied stress. Any additional stress 



27 

will produce permanent deformation. In steel and iron the elastic 
limit is about one-half the ultimate strength. 

24. How will riveted joints fall in thin and thick steel plates? 

In thin plates failure may take place by: 

1. Shearing of plate. 

2. Crushing of metal about rivets. 

3. Shearing of rivets. 
In thick plates : 

1. Shearing of rivets. 

2. Bending of rivets. 

25. Under what conditions can wood be used in permanent con- 
struction ? 

It can be used for work under water. It must not be exposed to 
the air at any time. It must also be protected from the teredo or 
other destructive forms of aquatic life. 

26. What is hydraulic cement and what are its properties and 
uses as regards engineering construction? Outline briefly the 
methods by which you would test the relative merits of two or more 
samples. 

Cement which possesses the property of hardening under water 
is called hydraulic cement. Hydraulic cement sets slowly and at- 
tains great strength. It resists the action of the weather. It is 
made of a mixture of lime and clay, natural or artificial, pulverized 
and burnt to vitrification. 

Its main properties are that it sets in air or in water and attains 
great strength which increases with time. It is used as a cementing 
material in masonry structures and in the manufacture of artificial 
stone, concrete, etc. 

27. What are the physical differences between American Port- 
land and Rosendale cements? How are they manufactured? 

Physical Differences. 
Portland Cement. Rosendale Cement. 

Texture^Close, floury. Porous and globular. 

Color — Bluish and greenish gray. Brownish. 

Slower setting than Bosendale. Sets quickly in air. 

Hardens slowly in water. 

Spec. Gr. 3.0. ± Spec. Gr. 2.7. 

Weight, 86 lb. per cu. ft. Weight, 50 lb. ±per cu. ft. 

Stronger than Bosendale. Not as strong as Portland. 



28 

In the manufacture of Portland cement lime rock and cement 
reck are quarried separately, ground and mixed and then burned to 
incipient vitrification. The clinker is then crushed and pulverized 
and bagged for the market. 

Eosendale cements are manufactured in a similar manner, only 
that the raw material is a natural mixture of the lime and cement 
rock. 

28. How do you test cements ? 

Cements are tested to determine their 

1. Fineness. 

2. Setting. 

3. Soundness. 

4. Specific gravity. 

5. Strength. 

1. Fineness is determined by passing the cement through sieves 
of various meshes and noting the percentages retained. 

2. Setting is determined by making pats of the cement and noting 
the time before they resist penetration of wires of specified weight. 

3. Soundness is tested by noting the condition of the edges of the 
pats; also by heating pats with steam and seeing if they blow or 
crack. 

4. Specific gravity is determined by apparatus provided for the 
purpose. 

5. Strength is determined by preparing briquettes and permitting 
them to remain in air and under water specified periods, and then 
breaking them in a testing machine and noting the breaking load. 

29. What are the important details of mixing and laying concrete 
t<^ secure good work? (This does not refer to proportions of ma- 
terials.) 

Mixing boxes should be provided for the sand, cement and stone. 
The sand and stone must be clean and free from dust. The sand and 
cement should be thoroughly mixed dry, the proper amount of water 
added, and then the stone incorporated in the mortar. 

The material should be deposited immediately after mixing in 
8 or 12-in. layers and well rammed. 

The forms should be firm, unyielding, smooth on the inside, and 
have tight joints. 

The forms should be allowed to remain for 12 hours after laying. 

Mortar or concrete partially set should not be tempered or used. 

Work should not be done in freezing weather, and in warm 
weather concrete should be kept moist and protected from sun. When 



Ai 



29 

new work is to be laid on old work, the old work should be thoroughly 
cleaned and painted with neat cement. 

The work should be protected from traffic until thoroughly set. 
All exposed surfaces should be neatly pointed. 

30. Give {a) full description of operation of mixing concrete by 
hand. (&) Describe any mechanical mixer with which you are 
familiar. 

(a) See Question No. 29. 

(&) For descriptions of mechanical mixers see trade catalogues, 
^diich can be obtained from manufacturers. 



31. What are the objections to tempering concrete? {a) Why are 
masses of concrete left wet for several days? (&) Why do you mix 
broken stone and gravel wet? (c) Why do you not use the shovel 
in laying concrete? {d) When is concrete cheaper than brick? 

Tempering concrete weakens it greatly. The concrete has al- 
ready partially set and tempering disturbs the chemical action which 
has begun, reducing the tensile strength. 

{a) Evaporation, percolation, and absorption by the stones cause 
a large loss of water in the mass of concrete and thus deprives it of 
the necessary water required lor proper setting. In order to avoid 
this, the mass of concrete is kept wet. 

Q)) Broken stone and gravel are mixed wet, as they absorb water 
from the mortar and would therefore retard and interfere with its 
setting. 

(c) If a shovel is used in laying concrete the mortar sticks to 
the shovel and will thus be separated from the stone; the water will 
run off the shovel, carrying the lightest material with it. This will 
be the case especially where the fall is considerable. 

{d) Concrete is cheaper than brick when used in large masses and 
where expensive and elaborate forms are not required. 

32. (a) How would you unite a new layer of concrete with old? 
(6) What is gained by storing Portland cement before using it? 

(a) By thoroughly washing and scrubbing the surface of the old 
concrete and painting the surface with neat cement or a rich mortar 
before the new concrete is laid. It is claimed by some that the use 
of tempered concrete at junction of old and new work will give good 
results. 

{h) Fresh cement contains free lime which causes expansion or 
"blowing" and might endanger the structure in which it is used in 
this condition. During the time of storing the free lime is changed 
to carbonate of lime and in this state the cement does not swell. 



30 

33. Describe briefly rubble masonry, ashlar masonry, and state 
the classes of engineering structures for which, these, and also brick 
masonry and concrete, are each adapted. 

Rubble masonry is composed of rough, undressed stone; it may 
be coursed, uncoursed or cobweb; used for cheap retaining walls, 
foundations of buildings, piers and abutments of highway bridges, 
and the backing of walls, dams, etc. 

Ashlar masonry is composed of cut stone, either coursed or ran- 
dom, laid in close joints. It is used for first-class retaining walls, 
piers of railroad and highway bridges, and facework of dams, abut- 
ments, anchorages, arches, etc. 

Brick masonry is used largely for walls and piers of buildings, 
for column footings, for sewers, arches of small span, etc. 

Concrete masonry is adapted for all classes of engineering struc- 
tures; especially adapted for underwater structures, such as pier 
foundations, etc. 

34. State briefly what you know of concrete-steel construction and 
its advantages. 

Concrete steel construction consists of steel imbedded in concrete 
so that the structure may act as a unit in resisting any strains that 
may come upon it. The steel is designed to take all the tension and 
the concrete the compression. Its application is universal, being 
used for the abutments and piers of bridges, arches, foundations, 
buildings, etc. Advantages : It is economical, durable, its elements 
easily transported, and it can be adapted to a variety of conditions. 

35. How many barrels of cement, yards of sand, and tons of 
broken stone are required to make 10 yd. of concrete of proportions 
1, 3 and 5? 

Assmne voids in cement = 0. , 
" " sand = 30% 
" " stone = 40% 
1 batch of concrete, proportions 1, 3, 5, will contain 
1 bbl. = 3.7 cu. ft. cement 
3 " = 11.1 " " ' sand 
5 « = 18.5 " " stone 
3.7 cu. ft. cement, with 0% voids, gives 3.70 cu. ft. in concrete. 
11.1 " " sand, " 30% " " 7.77 " " " " 

18.5 " " stone, " 40% " " 11.10 " " " " 



Each batch contains 22.57 " " " 

. ,10X27 270 
For 10 cu. yd. of concrete there will be required = 22 57 

11.9 batches, say 12 batches. 



31 



There will be 


required 


, therefore, 


3.7 X 12 =. 


: 12 bbl. 


cement 


11.1 X 12 
27 


: 4.93 cu 


. yd. sand 


18.5 X 12 - 


: 222 cu. 


ft. stone = 



about 22 200 lb. = 11 tons zb 

36. What are the requirements for substantial stone masonry? 
Substantial stone masonry must fulfill the following require- 

naents : 

The stone should be hard, sound, durable, cleaned and wet before 
laying. 

The cement must be of Al quality. 

The sand must be clean, sharp, and free from loam. 

In mixing the mortar care should be taken that it is done thor- 
oughly, not in freezing weather; that the proper amount of water is 
used. In laying the masonry, all joints should be full of mortar, as 
few spawls as possible to be used. Courses should be well bonded. 
Stones must be properly bedded on natural beds. Joints must not 
exceed limits prescribed. All exposed face joints should be well 
pointed. 

37. Give precautions in laying bricks where great strength is 
required. 

The bricks should be thoroughly wetted just before laying. Every 
brick must be completely imbedded on mortar under its bottom, on 
its sides and on its ends at one operation. Every joint must be full 
of mortar. The joints must be close, not exceeding i in., and pointed. 
Unfinished work must be racked or toothed. Before new work is 
added, the old work must be cleaned thoroughly and well moistened. 
The work should be well bonded. 

38. Describe a quick, rough test for cement that can be made on 
the work without machine. 

Make a small pat of neat cement and note interval of time 
elapsed until it resists slight pressure of thumb nail. Also note, after 
the cement is set, if the edges of the pat show cracks. 

A ball 1 in. in diameter of neat cement is often made (by mixing 
with a little water) and allowed to set. It should not crack or 
crumble, but grow steadily harder. 

39. Describe the requirements of good work in building a brick 
sewer. 

The bricks shall be best quality, hard burned, free from cracks, 
and have true, even faces. 

They must be thoroughly wet before laying. 



32 

Each brick must be laid in full mortar joints on bottom, sides 
and ends, which must be performed in one operation for each joint. 

No mortar to be worked in after brick is laid. 

Joints not more than f in. in thickness. 

Brickwork should be properly bonded and arches keyed. 

Hydraulic cement should be used. 

Cement and sand should be of proper quality and properly mixed.. 

The mortar should be used right after mixing; no mortar which 
has begun to set should be used. 

No work should be done in freezing weather. 

Every second course should be laid with a line. 

The foundation must be firm and unyielding. 

Centers must be of proper form and dimensions, and proper care 
observed in "striking" same. 

40. {a) Sketch a retaining wall showing the angle of repose of 
earth, {h) Show the line bounding the prism of maximum pressure, 
(c) Show the relation of the vertical angles bounded by these two 
lines, {d) Draw the diagram of forces acting upon the wall and 
show the position the resultant must take in order to insure stability. 

' . ! i>'^.-V. '' - ' -. ' -. ' ' ' i!'l^i : ! ' ?T " 




^ 






|^.i^V> 



'Prism of A--/^k 
Maximum ^/S^r^' 
Thrust f/j^ 



i .j:rhru^ 






.^-cg:^^^li^V^<5A^vk^:gi,>i^^^^ tj'^Anqr/e of Repose^ 



' 33°4l'forEarfh 



w 

41. In what way do retaining walls fail and why? 

1. By overturning about the toe, owing to the insufficient thick- 
ness of the base of the wall. 

2. By bulging or sliding due to the excess of the horizontal thrust 
produced by the backing, over the frictional resistance of the joints. 

3. By crushing of the masonry due to its poor quality, to excess- 
of unit pressure, or both. 

4. By disintegration of the wall, caused by soft, yielding, founda- 
tions, heaving and unequal settlement, or improper drainage of the- 
backing. 



33 

42. What condition of failure of a rectangular wall is shown by 
(a) vertical cracks, (h) forward movement as a mass, (c) horizontal 
cracks and bulging. What remedies would you use in each case? 

(a) Shows unequal settlement, remedied by increasing thickness 
of wall. 

(6) Due to sliding of wall on its foundation; remedied by using 
land ties or building buttresses on the front face of the wall, also by 
shoring up the wall. 

(c) Occurs in thin walls where the insufficient weight of masonry 
above a joint permits sliding. In this case the horizontal component 
of thrust against the wall is greater than the frictional resistances 
of the joint surface; remedied by increasing the thickness of wall. 

43. If the backing of a retaining wall is very wet mud, how would 
you investigate the stability, not considering sliding ? 

In this case use the weight of the wet mud instead of dry earth 
and the corresponding friction angle in the calculations; or the wet 
mud may be considered as exerting purely hydrostatic pressure with 
thrust normal to the back of the wall. 

44. Suppose the earth behind the wall is liable to be very wet at 
times, may any method be employed to reduce danger to the wall ? 

Yes. Weep holes should be left at intervals in the wall to carry 
off the water. Drains built along the wall and having a proper out- 
let will accomplish the same purpose. The backing adjacent to the 
wall should be of loose material, such as broken stone or gravel. 

45. How would you provide for expansion and contraction in a 
long concrete retaining wall? 

At intervals of 50 ft. or more openings are left about i in. wide, 
running the entire depth of wall, this space being filled with sand, 
asphalt or paper to retain backing. Steel rods may be imbedded 
to reduce effect of temperature changes. 

46. Upon what does bearing power of piles depend and what 
precautions should be used in driving piles, and how would you find 
safe bearing power theoretically? 

The bearing power of piles depends upon the skin friction or 
surface friction of pile and the point resistance; the former varying 
with size of pile and character of the material; the latter varying 
with the resistant character of stratum upon which pile rests. In 
driving piles, care should be taken to prevent "brooming" of head. 
A hoop or cap of iron may be used for this purpose. Excessive ham- 



34 

mering on pile that refuses to move should be avoided. Piles should 
be driven straight and to proper depth, with a proper fall of ram or 
hammer. Safe bearing power in pounds 

2 w h . 

= m which 

s + 1 
IV = weight of hammer in pounds. 
h = fall in feet. 

s = penetration of last blow in inches. 
This gives safety factor of 6. 

47. How would you tell when a pile has been driven sufficiently? 

When a number of successive blows produces a penetration equal 
to or less than amount prescribed by specifications. The load on the 
pile being known, the penetration may be calculated from formula. 
See Question 46. Test loads may be applied. 

48. What efiect, if any, has the brooming of a pile upon the effect 
of the hammer in driving it ? 

A "broomed" head acts as a cushion and dissipates the blow of 
the hammer. 

49. Outline briefly the essential points to be covered in specifica- 
tions for timber piles and pile driving. 

The specifications should describe the kind of timber, such 
as oak, pine, etc. The pile shall not be less than 8 in. nor 
more than 12 in. at small end, and not less than 12 in. at large end. 
The timber shall be free from shakes and defects. The piles shall 
be pointed before driving. They shall be straight, and bark 're- 
moved. Only portions left in work will be paid for. The top shall 
be banded before driving. The broomed portions shall be cut off. 
Iron shoes must be provided if necessary. The weight and fall of 
hammer and the penetration of the last blows shall be specified. 

50. Describe the distinctive characteristics of foundations best 
' adapted to the following sub-soil conditions : 

(a) Stiff gravel. 

(h) Wet, soft mud becoming stifier as depth increases. 

(c) Soft mud with hard gravel 15 ft. beneath. 

(d) Wet but confined and compact sand. 

(a) Excavate to the required depth ; smooth the bottom and spread 
a layer of concrete over the foundation. 

(h) Drive piles to proper bearing, cut the piles off level, build a 
timber grillage platform and place concrete on it, or cap the piles 
and surround with concrete. 

(c) Build a coffer-dam or sheath the outside of foundation; ex- 



35 

cavate the gravel, prepare bottom and deposit concrete, or proceed as 
m case of soft mud (h). ^ ^^ vx *» 

(d) Deposit concrete on the prepared bed of sand, confining sand. 

61 What are the advantages of a grillage of layers of steel rails 
set at right aiigles in concrete, for a footing of a retaining waU? 
fehow design for such a footing. 

The grillage causes a uniform distribution of the load over the 
loundation, thus reducing the unit loads to safe limits. 




'7?77r/7////////////////y/y 

52. How would you construct an earthen dam on gravelly soil so 
as to insure tightness? 

Excavate to proper depth specified. Clean the bottom of aU 
perishable material. If springs are encountered lead them off or 
tap them. Drive several rows of tongued and grooved sheet piling 
lor cut off of water. Construct the center portion of puddle the 
up-stream portion of fine material and the down-stream of coarse 
material, bonding the three portions well together. The up-stream 
slope about 2 to 1 and the down-stream about 2J to 1. Pave the upper 
slope and sod the lower. Material should be deposited in layers 
watered and rolled. ' 

The necessary provisions for intakes, gates, overflows, etc., should 
be made. 

53. Give method of obtaining size of whaHng pieces and size and 
distance apart of struts. 

. The pressure or thrust on a whahng piece depends : 

1. Upon its depth from the surface. 

2. Upon distance between centers of whaling pieces. 

3. Upon distance between centers of struts. 

4. Upon the character of retained material. 

The whaling pieces are considered beams uniformly loaded, whose 
spans equal the distances between centers of horizontal struts, each 
whaling piece supporting the earth half way to the next whalings 
above and below. The unit pressure at the depth of the center of 



36 

whaling piece times the supported area gives the load, and the size 
is computed by the beam formula. 

When the size of the whaling pieces becomes too large the span 
is reduced by placing the struts nearer together. The size of the 
struts is obtained by the column formula, the load being that on 
half of each adjoining whaling piece, and the length, the width of 
the trench. 

54. (a) How do circular arches generally fail; (h) segmental 
arches; (c) flat arches or 2 or 5-center arches? 

The failure of most arches is due to unequal settlement. 

(a) If the rise is less than the span the arch generally fails by 
the spreading of the haunches and the sinking of the crown. If the 
rise is more than the span, the haunches will generally be pressed 
inward and the crown will rise. 

(h and c) For flat, segmental, or 2 and 5 centered arches, failure 
occurs usually by spreading of the haunches and sinking of the 
crown. 

55. Define line of thrust, and in designing an arch where should 
itfaU? 

Line of thrust is the line of the resultant pressure due to dead and 
live load on arch. In designing an arch this line should fall within 
middle third of any joint. 



56. How would you design the base of abutment of arch 

The radius of arch in feet rise in feet . c. -• ^ 

-f- 1- 2 feet 



5 ' 5 

= with of abutment in feet (at springing line). 
The base is obtained by adding to this the additional width due to 
the batter. 

57. (a) Describe the method of tunneling by shield, (h) by blast- 
ing. 

(a) Shafts are driven at suitable points as at shore ends of a 
river, of sufficient size to permit lowering of shield, or the shield is 
erected in temporarily enlarged section of tunnel. A compressed air 
plant furnishes the air supply at required pressure to prosecute the 
work. Hydraulic jacks or rams force the shield ahead, the material 
filling the compartments of the shield being excavated by the men 
in same, through the bulkhead doors in shield diaphragm, and re- 
moved in cars to the shaft and out. The jacks bear against the 
finished lining of tunnel, which is carried ahead as shield progresses. 

(h) See Question No. 58. 

58. Describe the operation of tunneling for the work through 
rock. 



37 

After the shaft has been sunk to sub-grade, a heading, about 
6 ft. square, is driven near the crown of the arch of the tunnel sec- 
tion. The drill holes are driven about 9 ft. in, and converging, so 
that the blast will remove a conical-shaped mass of rock. The sides 
are then taken out to the lines of the tunnel section. Following this, 
holes are drilled in the shelf or bench thus formed, the heading mean- 
while being carried forward. Care should be taken in blasting that 
sides and roofs outside of tunnel lines are not disturbed, and that 
adjoining property is not endangered. Loose or disintegrated rock 
outside of tunnel lines should be removed. After each blast 
the rock or spoil is removed to the surface. Water-bearing seams 
should be drained or grouted. 

69. After a blast has been made in tunneling, how would you 
examine the roof to see whether the rock was safe or so shattered as 
to be in danger of falling? 

The roof, after being caref ally inspected, is sounded or tapped 
with a long pole or rod, loose rock being readily located by the sound. 
Precaution must be taken in sounding against the danger of falling 
rock, the examiner standing to one side. 

60. What methods and precautions are necessary in excavating 
rock, including blasting and all details in vicinity of houses, and 
what, when water pipes are present? 

The contractor should comply with all ordinances of the city. 
Before a blast is fired the rock should be covered with mats and logs. 
The prescribed explosives should be used in small charges. 

In residential districts blasts should not be fired between 8 P. M. 
and 7 A. M. No more explosives than is needed for 12 hours should 
be stored at one time on the work. It should be divided as much 
as possible and kept under lock and key, and separated from caps 
and exploders. Near water pipes rock within 5 ft. should be removed 
by hand. 

61. Give precautions to be taken for the health of assistants or 
laborers working under pneumatic pressure at a depth of 75 ft. 

Proper ventilation should be maintained. Carbonic acid gas not 
to exceed one-tenth of 1%. Noise-deadening devices should be used. 
Fumes from blasts must be rapidly removed. Ample locks of ap- 
proved pattern must be provided. Suitable quarters should be pro- 
vided near the shaft where men can wash, bathe, change clothing, 
be warmed on coming out of compressed air. Hot coffee should be 
obtainable at all times and physician must be in attendance. A 
compressed air hospital lock should be provided in case men are at- 
tacked by caisson disease. 



38 

62. Wliat is meant by "cut and cover" method in open cut con- 
struction and what is gained by it? 

The "cut and cover" method consists of excavating part or the 
whole tunnel section, building the side walls and covering the tuDnel 
as soon as possible. It is used in city streets where the depth is not 
great enough to warrant tunneling. The object is to prevent as much 
as possible interference with traffic. 

63. What is meant by (a) cut and cover, (h) ashlar, (c) three- 
centered arch, (d) sump? 

(a) See Question No. 62. 

(&) Ashlar refers to masonry composed of cut stones or blocks 
and laid in close joints. 

(c) A three-centered arch is an arch composed of three arcs hav- 
ing three different centers, but only two different radii. 

(d) A sump is a depression or well in low point of excavation 
into which all drainage is led and from which it is pumped, 

64. What is done with water in a tunnel below the level of a 
sewer ? 

The water is drained into sumps at convenient points, such as 
stations, and discharged by automatic ejectors or pumps into the 
sewers. 

65. In back-filling a trench, what is the arrangement of shovelers 
and rammers so that there shall be no subsequent settlement ? 

There should be three or four rammers to each shoveler, the 
ramming proceeding at the same time with the shoveling. The 
material is back-filled in layers and fiushed. 

66. When a trench for a wall has been made to the right depth 
i 'A any kind of earth, what is the next step ? 

In earth objectionable material should be removed and replaced 
with good, firm earth. The bottom of the trench is then leveled off to 
an even surface, flushed and rammed. The footing courses are then 
laid. In rock the bottom is cleaned, stripped of disintegrated por- 
tions and stepped off. The masonry is then started. 

67. (a) When is sheet piling left in? (h) When is it tongaied 
and grooved? 

(a) When careful drawing of same is apt to disturb retained 
material and thus endanger the foundations of adjacent structures. 



39 

Also when the cost of drawing same is greater than the value of 
the timber. 

(h) Sheeting is tongued and grooved when driven in water- 
bearing material to keep water out or freely-flowing sand, mud, 
etc. It is tongued and grooved for coffer-dams, caissons, etc., to 
make water-tight compartments. 

68. Under what conditions as to nearness of excavation, depth, 
character of soil, etc., would you consider it necessary to underpin 
buildings on the line of the subway? 

Generally speaking, buildings whose foundation walls are above 
grade of tunnel and within 10 ft. of excavation require underpin- 
ning if the soil adjacent to excavation is of yielding or mobile 
character and cannot safely be supported by sheeting. 

69. When water is being pumped from the soil in the excavation, 
how would you determine whether it is endangering surrounding 
buildings ? 

Examine the water discharged by the pumps, noting whether it 
is clear or contains material underlying the building foundations 
adjacent to the excavation. If the water is continually charged 
v/ith this material, the foundations may be endangered. 

TO. Give essential features of the process of underpinning a large 
building and every precaution to be taken. 

The essential features are: 

1. The preparation of a firm foundation bed at or below sub- 
grade of excavation, to which the load carried by the piers or 
columns is transmitted. 

2. The erection of footing courses and columns on these founda- 
tion beds, as in the case of permanent structures. 

3. The setting of beams or cantilevers on these supports and 
wedging them under structure to be supported to prevent settlement. 

The precautions to be observ^ed are : 

1. In excavating for foundations, etc., shafts and trenches 
should be dug as small as possible and far enough from building 
foundation not to endanger it. 

2. The operation of wedging should be done with great care, so as 
to prevent undue strains. 

71. Suppose a sewer crosses the work and has to be replaced by 
three smaller ones to make room for the work; is it sufficient to 
simply make them of a total equivalent section, or what else must 
bo considered? State fully. 

No. 



40 

The discharging capacity of the three small sewers must be 
equal to that of the sewer to be replaced. Since the wetted perimeter 
and consequently the friction of the three sewers is greater than 
that of the larger sewer, the velocity and therefore the discharge 
will be diminished. To obtain the same discharge, three sewers must 
be selected w^hose combined area is large enough to compensate for 
the loss due to increased friction. 

72. Describe alteration in line of a large brick sewer and method 
of caring for the flow meanwhile. 

The sewer is built along the new alignment, and when ready to 
join on to the old work a bulkhead of brick or cement bags is built 
at the points where the change of alignment begins and ends, the 
arch between the points having been removed. A temporary flume 
(or flumes) of sufficient size to carry the maximum flow, with the 
ends built into the bulkheads, is suspended or supported in the line 
of the old sewer, and far enough above the invert to permit the con- 
struction of the new invert at the points of connection. The old 
invert is now removed and the new work built and the connections 
made, when the bulkhead and flume are removed and the flow 
turned into the new sewer. 

73. Describe briefly the operation of supporting and moving a 
large water main so as not to interfere with its use. 

Block up the pipe on skids, long enough to permit lateral motion 
and having solid bearing. The skids are lubricated so as to facili- 
tate the motion of the blocks on them. The lead joints being some- 
what flexible and the spigots being set in far enough, slight motion 
is possible without causing leakage. Jacks are placed at the side 
of the pipe bearing against the trench walls or other solid support. 
Each length of pipe is now moved laterally a small amount, and the 
operation repeated until the required change is effected. 

74. How is condensation prevented on station walls and roofs? 

Condensation is prevented by providing a 1-in. air space between 
the station walls and roof and the concrete side walls, this air space 
extending from the ceiling to within a foot o*f the platform and 
communicating by vents with the outer air. The air space between 
the ceiling and roof jack arches prevents condensation on roof. 

75. Describe how the standard railway track is best maintained 
in line and grade. 

The rails are securely spiked to the ties set l^-ft. centers, the 
latter being provided with tie plates. 



41 

Tie rods between rails at intervals of 10 to 15 ft. are used to 
maintain gauge. Good trap rock ballast is placed on the concrete 
floor and thoroughly wedged under and between the ties and around 
the ends to maintain the grade and line. 

76. If a brick sewer is to be replaced by a number of cast-iron 
pipes so as to pass under the subway, how would you calculate the 
number and size of these iron pipes ? 

First ascertain the discharge of the brick sewer. Then decide 
tentatively on the number of iron pipes to be used. 

Each pipe is to carry its proportion of the flow. 

The length of each pipe is fixed by the width of the tunnel. 

Then by the ordinary formulas for the flow of water in pipes the 
diameters are obtained. If these diameters are not convenient a 
dift'erent number of pipes is assumed and diameters recalculated, and 
so on until the proper number and size are obtained. 

77. Describe damp-proofing and its methods of application. 

"Damp-proofing" consists of a continuous sheet of asphalt and 
felt embedded within the concrete of the top, sides and bottom of the 
tunnel, completely enveloping it. 

On the prepared surface of the concrete floor, side or roof of the 
tunnel a layer of hot asphalt is spread; on this a layer of felt is im- 
mediately rolled out while the asphalt is hot and made to stick over 
the entire surface; the joints in the felt should be broken. Care 
must be taken that the ends of the rolls of the bottom layer are car- 
ried up on inside of the layers on the sides and those of roof on 
outside with about a 3-ft. lap. On this layer of felt successive 
layers of asphalt and felt are laid in the same manner, two to six 
layers being used, according to nature of the ground. One or more 
courses of brick dipped in hot asphalt may be used in place of the 
above. 

78. Outline specification for back-filling subway near adjacent 
sewer. 

Filling should consist of sand, gravel or good clean earth free 
from stones over 8 in. in diameter and not containing more than one 
portion of stone to three of earth. It should be deposited in layers 
no more than 9 in. thick, watered and packed by rammers weighing 
not less than 30 lb., and in such manner that no unbalanced pressure 
can be thrown upon subway or sewer. Filling miTst be carefully 
packed and rammed about sewer, using special tools. No filling 
should be made with frozen earth. Sheeting should be carefully 
withdrawn as fast as filling progresses or may be left in place. 



42 

Y9. What do the specifications call for in regards to the storing of 
cement ? 

Cements should be stored in a tight building protected from the 
weather. The packages should be placed on a floor or platform raised 
several inches above ground. When stored out of doors canvas, 
should be placed around them. Ample storage room should be pro- 
vided so that lots can be separated for identification. 

80. How would you store materials as to public safety and con- 
venience ? 

Materials must not be piled within 4 ft. of any fire hydrant or 
fire alarm box. The Fire Department must be given access at all 
times and in all places to all buildings for extinguishing fires. 

All material should be watered if stored temporarily in street, if 
so ordered. Paving stones, flagging, etc., if to be reused, shall 
be moved at once to another block or neatly piled along route, so as 
not to obstruct use of walks and street by pedestrians and vehicl-es. 

81. How would you arrange the reports of your inspectors or 
other subordinates so as to obtain correctly the actual cost of any 
portion of the work? 

Classify the work under proper headings. 

■ Tabulate under each heading the forces employed and the ma- 
terial used. 

Apply the prevailing rate of wages and the market price of ma- 
terial to compute the cost of each class of work. 

To the cost thus computed add an allowance of about 15% for 
superintendence and also an allowance for interest and depreciation 
of plant to arrive at the total cost. 

The unit cost of any class of work can then be found by dividing 
the total cost of that class by the number of units completed. 

82. How would you inspect a job of riveting? 

With a special hammer weighing about a pound, blows are struck 
sharply on each side of the head of the rivet. 

Loose rivets will be indicated by jar or rattle. 

Also examine edges of rivet head, observing that there are no 
marks of caulking tool. See that the heads are concentric, fit 
closely all around and are free from cracks, and that no impress on 
the metal around the head has been made in driving the rivet. 

The rivet heads should be full size. 

83. In inspecting (a) a piece of finished riveted work, what de- 
fects would you look for in the riveting, (h) in a heavy casting as a 
base of a column? 



43 

(a) See Question No. 82. 

(h) In inspecting castings look for honeycomb. Blow holes or 
sand holes when filled with sand or loam are detected by a dullness 
in sound, upon tapping. Examine also for shrinkage cracks, large 
ridges at partings and flaws on edges. Warped castings or those 
that are incorrect in dimensions should be rejected. 

84. Make a sketch of a beam uniformly loaded. Show reaction 
at each support in terms of w I, etc., and moment at center. 

WVYWWW WVYWWWW 




weight per unit, I == length of span, R = reaction at supports 



ei 


igt 


li of span. 


R 




R 


w I 

~ 2 






I 
2 


— 


'^x 


I 

4 


= 



_ „ . 10 I I iv r w I 
Moment at center = R X -^ ^r X ^, = -^ X ^ ^ = ^ 



85. Describe the method of transmission of electrical power by a 
third rail, stating briefly its advantages and disadvantages. 

The third rail is divided into sections one-half mile or so in 
length, and receives its power from feeders passing through ducts 
along tunnel wall and under station platforms. These feeders. or 
cables, proceeding from the power house or substations, are tapped 
at various intervals, supplying direct current at about 550-600-volt 
pressure to the third rail. Insulating blocks electrically separate the 
third rail from the track or subway floor, which acts as the return 
circuit. The advantages are cheapness, simplicity of construction, 
economy of space. 

Disadvantages are danger in case of accident; its exposure and 
easy accessibility, endangering life. 

86. Write a report on a job of pile driving for the abutments of a 
bridge and for getting in the footings of the same. 

The report should include: (a) the character of the foundation, 
number and spacing of piles, their original lengths and diameters, 
the kind of timber, etc., depth to which they are driven, description 
of apparatus, weight and fall of ram, penetration of last blows, etc. 



44 

(h) The grade and amount of cut off, the net lengths remaining 
in, and the total lineal feet of piles to be paid for should be given. 
The number of piles delivered, used and rejected, the reasons for 
rejection, the number broken and pulled up should be tabulated. 

(c) The formulas used and tests for the bearing power of piles. 

(d) For getting in the footing courses the report should give depth 
and extent of excavation, depth of footing course and offsets, the 
proportion, character of ingredients, methods of mixing and laying 
the concrete, forms and amount of timber used. 

(e) Force and material accounts. 

87. Make a report and write specifications for materials and build- 
ing of a 20-ft. semi-circular arch, assuming it to be 2 ft. thick. 

They should include a detailed description of the site, of the 
•character of the foundation for the side walls, giving results of 
borings and test pits, if any. It should also contain calculations and 
method of design of arch, giving loadings assumed, etc. Also esti- 
mate of quantities, of cost, time, and comparisons between costs of 
•different materials. Specifications should cover the following items : 
Excavation, rock and earth; cement, sand and broken stone, if any; 
mortar, how mixed; masonry, the various classes in structure; 
method of laying, centering, timbering, etc.; character of spandril 
fiQling; method of striking of centers, etc. 

88. At Times station why is there 1 ft. between platform and 
entrance to cars? 

The edges of station platforms at Times Square are on curves 
parallel to the tracks. To permit cars of train to pass around same, 
the side of the car being parallel to a chord of the curve, a clear- 
ance of 1 ft. between platform and car entrances is required. 

89. How would you figure the spacing for the iron bents of the 
subway when on a curve? 

On the center line of the tunnel the iron bents should be spaced 
the same as on the tangents — 5 ft. apart. 

The inner and outer bents are on radial lines to the curve, so 
that the inner spacing will be less than and the outer spacing more 
than 5 ft., the distance being computed from the respective radii. 

90. Show by sketch a typical vertical cross-section of a four (4) 
tiack tunnel where it is necessary to keep close to the surface, in- 
-cluding important dimensions and indication of materials used. 



45 




m^m^^^^^m^^^^^s^^mmm^^^mm^^mm^^^^mW' 



Waterproofina-' 

•4:10'^ iz'e' 



M I 



Minimum Depth ofCorcrrtc a 
Half Cross Section. 



•/Z'6' 



Port Longitudirml Secrfpft* 



prn 






Footing i 
Stones^, ' 




This FfoofConstwcfion is 
ts be used where extra 
Depth is required tvpasf 
Pipes across Top of 
Structure. 



Cross-Section of New York Subway. 
(FromStaufEer's '•Modern Tunnel Practice." by permission. > 



46 



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MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE • 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 

TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 
Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER 
Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN, and INSPECTOR 



VOL. II. PART II. 

Assistant Engineer 
General, Aqueduct, Docks, Sewers & Highways 



INDEX 



Previous Examination Papers 



General pp. 4 to 24 

Aque^duct and 

Water Supply. pp. 2<yto 35. 

Docks pp. 36 to 39 

Sewers pp. 40 to 42 

General . , Q i to 90 

Aqueduct — Q 91 to 170 

Typical Questions and Answers ^ Docks Q 171 to 185 

Highways. ...Q 186 to 198. 
Sewers Q 199 to 21S 



NEW YORK: 

The Engineering News Publishing Company 

1906 



Copyright, 1936, by 
The Engineering News Publishing Company 



PREFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers," which have been in- 
cluded in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical 
in wording with those actually given at the examinations, as copies 
of the original papers are not readily procurable, but they do 
embody the .substance of questions asked. 

The papers marked "Miscellaneous Questions" are compiled 
from many sources, having their origin at examinations held pre- 
vious to the dates given, and are inserted to enhance the value of the 
book. 

In the section devoted to "TjTpical Questions and Answers," 
great care has been taken to make the answers conform with the 
best modern practice. Reasonable variance of opinion may exist 
as to what is the best answer, owing to differences in interpretation 
of the questions and in education and experience, but it is sufficient 
to say that the answers are based on such recognized authorities as 
Trautwine's "Civil Engineer's Pocket Book," Baker's "Masonry Con- 
struction," Byrne's "Highway Construction and Inspector's Pocket 
Book," Merriman's "Hydraulics," Eanning's "Water Supply," and 
Patton's "Civil Engineering." 

In order to perpetuate the value of the book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing 
for the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions 
and Answers" have been interleaved to provide space for notes, 
sketches and additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



ASSISTANT ENGINEER— GENERAL. 



Salary, $1 200 to $3 000 per annum. 



Miscellaneous Questions, Covering a Number of Assistant Engi- 
neers' Examinations. 



October, 1891. 

1. Show graphically the resultant of three or more forces acting 
in the same plane. 



2. V = \/2 g h. What is the value of g? Give application. 

3. ^Yhat is a vernier? 

4. What is your method of calculating earthwork? 

5. What instruments are necessary in laying out a curve, and 
describe their uses? 

6. ^Yliat are the physical differences between American Portland 
and Rosendale cements? How are they manufactured? 

7. How do you test cement? 

8. Eind the horse-power of a stream, discharge 100 cu. ft. per 
sec, fall 10 ft. 

9. What practical method do you know of for measuring the 
discharge of running water in open channels ? 

10. Give formula for above, or state where it can be found. 

11. In a rectangular dam where is the center of pressure? 

12. Wliere should the line of pressure on an arch fall? 

13. What is the law of liquids at rest? 

14. How high can you pump water with a suction pump, at sea 
level ? 

15. At T 000 ft. above sea level ? 



16. What do you mean by the grade line of a pipe, and its 
hydraulic grade line? 

17. What relation should exist between them? 

18. What is the wet perimeter of an egg-shaped sewer 3 f t. x 2 ft. 
running full? 

19. Wliat is the number of bricks in a running ft. of 8-in. 
work? 

20. A^Hien would you prefer pipe and when brick sewers? 

21. What is the horse;power necessary to lift 2 240 lb. 100 ft. 
per sec? 

22. Wliat is the safe load for earth foundations? 

23. ^Miat is the best method of preserving piles in sea-water? 

24. Same in ground? 

25. What is the weight of a cast-iron wedge 1 ft. x 2 in. x 3 in. 
high? 



6 
ASSISTANT ENGINEEE— GENEKAL. 



Miscellaneous Questions — Brooklyn, Dec, 1894. 

1. What is meant by the acceleration of gravity, and what is it 
in figures? 

2. Through what distance does an ordinary body fall in the first 
second and third seconds; and what is its velocity at the end of 
each second, in feet? 

3. Do these distances hold good at all points on the earth's 
surface? If not, where are they the least or most? 

4. What is the fundamental law or equation upon which the flow 
of water in pipes, conduits, streams, etc., is based, and what modi- 
fications in it are necessary when it is applied to particular cases 
(if answered by equations explain the symbols)? 

5. Given two reservoirs 500 ft. and 2 000 ft. sq., and filled with 
water 20 ft. deep, the banks being 25 ft. high, how much heavier 
or thicker should the wall or bank be in the one case than in the 
other, and why? 

6. If, in running a line in an open level country, you find it 
passes through a house near to the bank of the stream which the 
line would cross, how would you pass the obstacle, triangulate 
through it and across the stream, get the distance and continue the 
line if you had no note books or tables but only your surveying 
instruments ? 

7. How would you proceed if your line ran east and the stream 
northwest and southeast and you had to do all your triangulation 
on the north side of your line? 

8. What is the ordinary velocity of sound per sec, and does the 
velocity vary with the temperature or not ? If so, how ? 

9.' What is the boiling point of water at sea level, and how 
does it change as you rise above the sea ? "What change for 5 000 
ft. rise? 

10. What is the average rainfall in the vicinity of New York 
City and how much of it may usually be expected to flow down the 
streams? Answer in inches of rainfall. If not familiar with this 
locality, answer concerning the locality in which you have been 
through most of 1894. 

11. Describe method of ascertaining the horse-power of a run- 
ning stream, and give an illustration and example, including a 



sketch of a weir in a stream. How much of the theoretical horse- 
power can be obtained in practice, and delivered to a line shaft in 
•^ mill? 

12. Show by means of diagrrams the sines, cosines, tangents, co- 
tangents, versed sines and co-versed sines of one angle of about 40°* 
and one of about 150°. 

13. Describe method of making and laying concrete, stating- 
what tests of cement should be made, how to select or secure good 
sand and stone, size of latter, the proportion of each with Rosendale 
or Portland cement, and the manipulation of materials so as to 
secure good results. What is meant by "voids" in engineering 
practice ? 

14. Suppose a double-track standard gauge railway, which now 
runs through a street, is to be lowered 25 ft. and made to run through 
a tunnel under the street, the surface of which then will be given 
up to ordinary street traffic. The entrance to the tunnel will be 
faced with stone and have wing walls at an angle with the track, 
the arch being, rather flat. Sketch roughly the elevation of a suit- 
able entrance, making it to a scale of i in. to 1 ft. and designate 
the different kinds of masonry, names of different parts and kind of 
material which should be used. 

15. The above tunnel after passing the entrance will have side 
walls with vertical face and a brick arch. Sketch this section, and 
describe the parts from foundations to street surface: making 
sketch on scale I in. to the foot (sketch need only show as much of 
the construction as can be put in a space 6 in. wide. It can be 
broken off on one side of center line). 

16. What is meant by the terms "separate system" and "com- 
bined system" in sewers? 

17. What is a catch basin, and what is its use? Sketch one and 
describe construction. 

18. What is a manhole, and what is its use? Sketch one and 
describe construction. 

19. A^Hiat is a flush tank, and describe its uses? 

20. Sketch an oval sewer, i. e., egg-shaped, and give radii of all 
arcs in terms of greatest horizonal width. 

21. What is the reason for the use of an oval sewer? 

22. What is meant by hydraulic mean radius? 



23. What is the proper maximum velocity of flow through 
sewers ? 

24. What is the minimum slope allowable for 6-in., 9-in., 12-in. 
and 24-in. sewers and the least allowable in any sewer? 

25. For what rainfall per hour, reaching the sewers, should a 
sewer be designed for an area of 20 acres ; also for 500 acres ? 

26. Having a rainfall of 2 in. per hour in a well-paved com- 
pactly built city, what size circular sewer having a fall of 2 ft. in 
100 would be necessary to carry off the water from an area of 20 
acres, assuming that all the rainfall reaches the sewer? Show 
calculation or describe it, if you would use tables such as you 
would expect to have in your office, state just what the tables are, 
where they would be found, and how you would use them. 

27. Would the sewer run full or only partly full? 

28. If left with you to decide, would you make this sewer a pipe 
sewer or an oval brick sewer? 

29. Describe order of work in a street where you wish to lay a 
pipe sewer and be sure that each pipe is on exact grade. 

30. What are the different kinds of road or street surfaces in 
use in American cities, and in what order of merit would you 
arrange them? Begin with common dirt road. 

31. What are "curb" stones and "bridging" in street work? Of 
what material should they be, and of what dimensions? To what 
extent should they be dressed? 

32. Describe the steps of construction of a first-class pavement 
and street to take the place of a common dirt road. 

33. Sketch the finished work. Suppose roadway to be 40 ft. 
wide and two sidewalks each 10 ft. wide. 'Note various measure- 
ments. 

34. How is the best granite block pavement constructed, and 
what would such work as you describe cost per square yard? 

35. How is the best asphalt pavement constructed? 

86. Where are the principal asphalt deposits found? Wliat 
is the difference between "land asphalt" , and "lake asphalt" from 
Trinidad, chemically? 



37. Is an asphalt pavement injured by water standing upon it 
and, if so, how does it deteriorate? 

38. To what tests would you subject a brick to determine whether 
or not it was suitable for use in street pavements ? 

39. Describe the construction of a first-class brick pavement, 
giving- sketch and dimensions of brick and of the different parts 
of the pavement from curb to curb. 

40. What are the advantages and disadvantages of different 
kinds of pavements? 

41. What are current prices of pavements in the vicinity of 
New York? 

42. What is a maximum safe load, in pounds per square foot, to 
place upon good dry sand or good earth in constructing founda- 
tions ? 

43. Sketch a timber crib suitable for a bridge pier and de- 
scribe it. 

44. Sketch a pneumatic caisson for bridge pier. 

45. Sketch a coffer-dam for bridge pier. 

46. Sketch a Howe truss, and name different members. 

47. Explain the terms "positive" and "negative" in electricity 
and state what is meant when a water main is said to be "negative" 
to a rail in a track above it. 

48. To prevent or reduce electrolysis of water pipes should the 
pipes be positive or negative to the rail and why? 

49. What is meant by the term "duty" as applied to pumping 
engines ? 

50. If a metal has a breaking strength of 1 000 000 lb. per sq. in. 
in tension, how thick should a 12-in. pipe (inside diameter) be, to 
safely conduct water from a reservoir which has a water surface 
200 ft. above the point of delivery? Show the calculation. 



10 
ASSISTAIS^T ENGINEER— GENERAL. 



Miscellaneous Questions — New York, 1896. 

1. What is 5'our experience in civil engineering? 

2. Have j^ou ever pursued a course of study in any institution 
or with any civil engineer, which fits you for the position of as- 
sistant engineer ? 

3. Have you ever had any responsible charge of any public work ? 
State particulars. 

4. Solve the following according to the algebraic signs and 
show work. 

5. The population of a certain town, in 1880, was 7 095 ; it 
having increased 25% in 10 years, what was it in 1870? Show 
your work. 

6. How many feet board measure in the flooring of a room 
20 ft. by 30 ft. and 2 J in. thick? 

7. Find the value of x and y in the following equations : 

2 x_-^ ^ y = 33, 
4: X — 2/ = 17. 

8. Find the value of x in equation: x^ — x — 40 = 170. 

9. Find the value of .t in equation: x- + ^' + 40 = 100. 

10. Explain the meaning of the expression {a -\- x)2: 

11. What is a logarithm? 

12. What is the base of the common system? 

13. In making what calculations are logarithms useful? 

14. How do you find the logarithm of a number in the table of 
logarithms ? 

15. What are similar triangles? 

16. How are similar triangles proportioned to each other? 

17. The sides of a polygon being prolonged, what is the sum 
of all the exterior angles equal to? 

18. How do you pass the circumference" of a circle through 
three given points not in the same straight line? 

19. How do you describe a square in a circle? 



11 

20. Make a sketch of the form of cast-iron beam best adapted 
to resist a transverse strain. 

21. How do you describe a regular hexagon in a circle? 

22. What proportion do circumferences and areas of circles 
bear to their radii ? 

23. How do you find the area of a regular polygon? 

24. How do you find the area of an irregular polygon? 

25. How do you find the area of a circle? 

26. How do you find the solid contents of a cylinder? 

27. How do you find the solid contents of a wedge? 

28. How do you find the solid contents of a pyramid? 

29. Find the contents of the wedge, base 20 ft. x 30 ft., height 
10 ft., edge 15 ft. 

30. State the prismoidal formula; would you use it in calculat- 
ing earthwork? 

31. Calculate the following sections, cutting being denoted by plus, 
filling by minus; both being written over the distance from the 
center, slopes 1 to 1. 

32. How many and what parts of a plane triangle must be 
given to find the rest ? 

33. Define the terms sine, cosine, tangent and co-tangent. 

34. What are natural sines, cosines, etc.? 

35. What is a table of logarithmic sines, cosines, etc. ? 

36. Two sides and two angles of a plane triangle being given, 
how do you find the other parts? 

37. When two sides of a plane triangle and the included angle 
are given, how do you find the other parts? 

. 38. In the right-angle triangle, express algebraically the value 
of the sine, cosine, tangent and co-tangent. 

39. What is the law of gravitation? 

40. Do you understand that there is any difference in the mean- 
ing of the terms of gravitation and gravity? 

41. What is the law of falling bodies? 



12 

42. Express algebraically this law, calling v velocity of falling 
body; a acceleration of gravity; and h height. 

43. What is the center of gravity of a body? 

44. How is it found? 

45. Where is the center of gravity of a homogeneous body whose 
sides are all rectangles? 

46. What is the specific gravity of a body? 

47. What is the standards for solids and liquids? 

48. What for gases? 

49. What lavv^s govern the pressure of liquids at rest? 

50. How do you find the number of gallons of water to the 
cubic foot? 

51. What is the weight of a gallon of water? 

52. What is the pressure per square inch on the side of a vessel 
at the depth of 10 ft. below the surface of the water? 

53. What will be the theoretical volume of discharge per 
second from a reservoir through a pipe 1 ft. in diameter, discharg- 
ing at a depth of 100 ft. below the surface of the water? 

54. Plow many gallons of water will be discharged through a 
pipe 1 ft. in diameter, 328 ft. long, head 134 ft. coefficient of flow 
pipe 1 ft. in diameter, 328 ft. long, head 13i ft. coefficient of 
flow = .007? 

55. State how many men are needed to make up a full party 
for a survey of a preliminary line or location of a public work, 
such as a railroad or aqueduct. 

56. State also their several duties. 

57. For what purpose is the magnetic needle used in surveying 
land ? 

58. What is a traverse table and what is it used for? 

59. How do you set out a circular curved line upon the ground? 

60. If an obstacle occurs to alignment, state how you would 
overcome it upon straight lines; also upon curves. 

61. The radius of a curve being given and angle of intersection 
of two tangents, how do you find the length of the tangent from 
their intersection to the beginning of the curve? 



13 

62. Describe the engineer's transit, and name its adjustments. 

63. Describe the Y level and name its adjustments. 

64. How many kinds of leveling rods do you know of? 

65. State how they are graduated, and how they can be read 
to thousandths of a foot. 

QQ. Show a form of field book for transit notes used when 
"running curves," and place thereon notes of a 5° -curve for 1 000 ft., 
with two intermediate set ups. 

67. Show a form of level-book, and place thereon sufficient 
figiires to show your method. 

68. What are cross-sections? 

69. How do you set slope stakes for excavation and embank- 
ment ? 

70. What is a grade line? 

71. What proportion of the breaking weight of a beam would 
you consider a safe load? 

72. With the load uniformly distributed, what fractional part 
of the whole weight may be considered, in all calculations, as being 
carried at the center? 

73. Suppose a beam supported at both ends, and take w = weight 
1 = length of beam, h = breadth, d = depth, S = breaking weight, 
express algebraically the value of ;S' in terms of the other quantities. 

74. Sectional area being 36 sq. in., which would be the stronger 
section, 6x6 or 4x9? 

75. Make a design for a pair of rafters, connected by a tie beam, 
for a roof 30 ft. span, showing the dimensions of the several parts 
and the manner of connecting them. State in detail your method 
of obtaining several dimensions. 

76. How do you apply the principle of the parallelogram of 
forces in determining the strain on the various members of a 
structure; illustrate graphically. 

77. What should be the thickness at the top and base of a 
retaining wall 15 ft. high, built to retain ordinary earth ? Show 
your method of obtaining the required dimensions; also a sketch, 
of the wall, showing how it should be founded. 



14 

78. A reservoir is to te built — depth of water 10 ft. If the walla 
are built of masonry, find the thickness of the same, and state how 
they should be built. Show your work. 

79. What is an arch, of how many forms, and of what may it 
be constructed? 

80. Can you state how you would find the thickness of an arch 
of stone, span and rise being given? 

81. Define the intrados and extrados of an arch. 

82. Where should the line of resistance to pressure be found in 
an arch in order to retain its stability? 

83. How can you find the thickness of the abutments, the rise and 
span of the arch being given? 

84. In the semi-circular arch, where is the horizontal thrust 
greatest and where least? 

85. Name the common kinds of stone used in building. 

86. Define the terms "quarry-faced," "rough-pointed," "fine- 
axed," "bush-hammered," as applied to the dressing of stone. 

■ 87. Describe "rubble" masonry, "ashlar" masonry, and "broken 
ashlar" masonry. 

88. What are "headers" and stretchers?" 

89. What should be the proportion of "headers" to "stretchers"? 

90. How would you prepare the foTindation of a heavy wall, and 
how deep should it be excavated? 

91. How are walls founded on soft or yielding materials? 

92. Describe a good quality of bricks, and state how you would 
know a good brick from a poor one. 

93. In how many ways is brick v/ork "bonded" to make good 
work in heavy walls? 

94. What is hydraulic cement, and how many kinds do you 
know of? 

95. Which do you consider the better cement, Rosendale or 
Portland, and why? 

96. What is mortar composed of, and how mixed? 

97. What kind of sand should be used, and how do you test its 
quality ? 



15 

98. What is the meaning of the term "setting" as applied to 
cement ? 

99. How would you test cement? 

100. What is concrete; of what composed, and in what propor- 
tion should its ingredients be mixed? 

101. Name the common kinds of wood used in building. 

102. What kind of timber resists decay longest underground? 

103. How may timber be preserved from decay? 

104. What do you understand by limit of elasticity as applied to 
a beam under strain or pressure; what is meant by the neutral axis 
of a beam? 

105. What is the tensile strength of a good quality of wrought 
iron per square inch ? 

106. For what parts of a structure may cast and wrought iron 
be used in reference to tension and compression? 



16 

ASSISTANT ENGmEEK— GENERAL. 

New York, Eeb. 23, 1897. 

1. State the duties of an Assistant Engineer. 

2. Write specifications for broken stone, sand and cement in first- 
class concrete, and give details of mixing and laying. 

3. Write specifications for brick to be used in a large sewer, 
and give method for lajdng same. 

4. Give sketch of a retaining wall 20 ft. high, to retain earth,, 
and give dimensions. 

5. If above wall is in massive blocks, write specifications for 
wall and exact way in which stone must be manipulated for best 
results. 

6. Suppose the earth behind the wall is liable to be very wet 
at times, may any method be employed to reduce the danger to 
the wall? 

7. A segmental arch has a rise of 5 ft. and a span of 40 ft., 
state approximately how much the horizontal thrust would be in- 
creased by an additional center load of 40 000 lb. 

8. Define the line of thrust, and in designing an arch where 
should it fall? 

9. How w^ould you design the base of abutment of an arch? 

10. Suppose abutment to be built on compressible ground, give 
sketch of foundation you would use, with dimensions, and give 
reasons for each step. 

11. What is the safe load for a well-driven pile? 

12. Give safe loads for clay, sand, gravel and loam. 

13. Give weight of cast iron, wrought iron, water, moist sand, 
concrete, brickwork with close joints, and limestone masonry. 

14. Write specifications for piles and method of driving. 

15. Write specifications for 12-in. pipe sewer, in reference tQ 
quality, testing and deliverj^ of pipe. 

16. Write specifications for laying pipe sewer, including refill- 
ing in trenches. 

17. Describe points to be observed in digging a trench where 
blasting is likely to occur, trench being near a water main. 



17 

18. Describe in detail the method of laying a 36-in. water main. 

19. Write monthly estimate for regulating, grading and paving 
a street with stone blocks. 

20. Give estimates for materials for a 4 ft. brick sewer 1 000 
ft. long, 

21. An important sewer is to run along a line, part through 
rock, part through unknown material and balance to outlet over 
salt marsh. Being directed to make an examination of the line, 
write your report stating everything done and give recommenda- 
tions. 



18 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEK— GENEEAL. 

New York, August 20th, 1897. 

1. Draw diagram showing radius and length of a curve and 
tangent, and also tangent to both sides. 

2. Sides of a triangle are 120, 60 and 70, find the area. 

3. Give relation between sine, cosine and tangent. 

4. How would you give grades for a sewer? 

5. What are the conditions of the stability of a retaining wall? 

6. Show graphically how to adjust an error of closure. 

7. What precautions should be taken in building a retaining 
wall? 

8. How would you lay out a simple curve? 

9. To what points would you pay special attention to in laying 
a water pipe? 

10. How would you determine what size of culvert to use? 

11. How would you guard against a washout? 

12. How would you make a survey to determine capacity of a 
reservoir ? 

13. How would you compute above capacity? 

14. There is a load on the roof of 12 lb. per sq. ft., horizontal 
wind pressure 30 lbs. per sq. ft., rafters 3 ft. apart; find stresses 
in all members. 

15. What is the center of pressure and find it on a rectangular 
gate immersed in water. 

(Board of Public Improvements, Dept. Highways, Etc.) 

1. State in detail what experience you have had in topographical 
work, drainage and highway construction, which would especially 
fit you for this class of work; giving place and kind of work. 

2. (a) What use is made of the magnetic meridian in surveys? 
(h) State the sources of error in making a survey by the magnetic 
needle, (c) Are surveys usually made with magnetic needle? 

3. (a) Name the different kinds of pavements in use in cities. 
(h) Give a brief description of each, (c) State the conditions un- 
der which each can be used. 



19 

4. (a) What is rubble masonry? (h) Ashlar masonry? (c) In 
what engineering structures is each used and when are brick 
masonry and concrete used? 

5. Give the angle of intersection and P. C. of a street or rail- 
way curve, show how you would run out the curve. 

6. Where a street or railway in embankment crosses a stagnant 
pond the bottom of which is soft material state what method you 
would pursue in making an earth-fill across the same to obtain a 
permanent embankment. 

7. (a) Where a street crosses a valley by embankment sustained 
by a retaining wall of masonry, show how you would obtain the 
dimensions of the wall, (h) Explain the theory of pressure of 
earth against a retaining wall. 

8. Wliat is the least grade desirable in a street gutter and how 
would you arrange the grade in a street where the existing grade 
between two intersecting streets is too flat for proper drainage? 

Promotion to Assistant Engineer. Borough of Richmond, 

August 25th, 1902. 

1. Describe the different kind, of street pavements and show 
dimensions and construction. 

2. What is the minimum allowable gutter grade for granite 
block pavement? 

3. "^Tiat is the minimum allowable grade for 6 in., 8 in. and 12 
in. sewer pipe? 

4. What is the maximum allowable grade for asphalt pavement? 

5. What is the method for calculating areas from traverses? 

6. Calculate the area of an egg-shaped sewer equal to 10 ft. 
circular and show construction in soft wet gravel. 

7. What is the greatest allowable error in precise leveling for 4 
miles ? 

8. What is a fair closure of 20 angles in a traverse ? 

9. Show design for retaining wall with earth slope of 45° from 
lop — also show design for abutment of arch bridge at tide water. 

10. Show method of calculating sizes of outfall of lateral sewers. 



20 

ASSISTANT ENGINEER— GENEEAL. 

Technical. 

New York, October 9, 1899. 

1. {a) What do you understand by the "angle of repose" of 
earth? (h) At what point above the base of a retaining waU will 
the centre of pressure from earth behind it be located, when the 
earth is level with the wall? 

2. {a) Within what limits of the base of a retaining wall or 
the abutments of an arched bridge, must the line of thrust fall to 
insure stability? (&) What proportions of headers to stretchers 
should be used in an abutment wall? 

3. About what pressure per square foot can safely be placed on 
the following materials in founding structures upon them where 
liable to be continually wet; (a) stiff clay; (h) loam; (c) gravel? 
{d) In taking loamy earth from a "borrow pit" what difference 
in cubical contents will there be between the "borrow pit" and the 
complete "fill." 

4. What is the difference between "refraction" and "reflection" 
as applied to light, and how does the former affect the line of sight 
taken through a level? 

5. Suppose you had in leveling to take 1 600 feet sights ; how 
can you do it with reasonable accuracy and eliminate the effects of 
"curvature" and "refraction"? 

6. What are the several qualities of cast and wrought iron and 
wrought steel which make them useful for various classes of en- 
gineering construction? Describe briefly the work for which each 
is well adapted and in general the methods by which you would 
test them. 

7. Outline briefly the essential points to be covered in specifica- 
tions for timber piles and pile-driving. 

8. Describe the various ways of shaping' and using sheet piling 
to keep water from work in progress. 

9. What is hydraulic cement, and what are its properties and 
uses as regards engineering construction? Outline briefly the 
methods by which you would test the relative merits of two or 
more samples. 

10. Show a form for moniJ^ly estimate to a general contractor, 
including at least six items of material or labor on some kind of 
city engineering construction; assume quantities and set unit val- 



21 

ues agreeing approximately with present market values; carry out 
the arithmetic, show percentage returned and previous payments. 



EEPOKT. 

Write a report covering at least two pages on the location and 
design of some public work with which you are acquainted, giving 
the reasons why the design was adopted in the form given. Also 
give the progress of the work up to some given time, containing 
such items as a progress report to your chief ought to contain. 



MATHEMATICS. 

Gn^E ALL THE WORK OX THE EULED ShEET. 

1. If 12 men can shovel 90 yd. of earth in an hour and a half, 
how many men will be required to shovel 2 550 yd in a working 
day of 10 hr. ? 

2. A culvert must take drainage from 1 000 acres. How many 
cubic feet per second must be carried by the culvert? 

Use formula Q =z c y ^ ~s~a^ > where Q equals cubic feet per 
second reaching culvert; c equals proportion of rainfall reach- 
ing culvert; y equals rainfall per hour; s equals average slope 
of water shed in feet (per 1 000 ft. of horizontal distance) and a 
equals acres of water-shed. (Give values to c, y and s according to 
your judgment; exact quantities are not required.) 

3. A grade of 1/270 is how much per 100? How much per mile? 

4. A building is 50 ft. wide and the pitch of a peaked roof is 
30°. What is the length of the rafter. With rafters spread 10 
ft. apart what is the strain in the rafter from a uniform load of 
30 lb. per square foot of horizontal area? 

6. Extract the square root of 47 065.06. 



EXPEEIENCE. 

1. Have you taken a regular course of instruction as an engineer 
in any college or technical school? If so, at what one? What was 
the length of the course, and what degree or diploma did you re- 
ceive, if any? 

2. If you have not taken such a course, state what your educa- 
tion as an engineer has been. 



22 

3. Have you followed any mechanical pursuit, and if so, what, 
and how long. 

4. State what experience you have had in the practice of engi- 
neering, particularly in City work. 

5. If there are any other points you consider important in your 
experience that would help you as engineer, state them. 



!l 



23 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEK— GENEEAL. 

August 12th, 1904. 

1. In foundation work, if you meet with quicksand, what would 
you do ? 

2. A retaining wall, vertical back will have a road filled in rear. 
Given, grade of road, width, etc., with two cross-sections, side 
slopes li to 1, compute fill for 100 ft. of the length. 

3. Write a report not less than 500 words on the Riverside 
Drive Extension, describing the construction of a trunk sewer and 
transverse sewers connecting with same to drain private dwellings 
along the Drive. 

4. Give sketches showing three types of sidewalks and state 
different characteristics. 

5. How many cubic yards of broken stone, sand, Portland cement 
will it take to make 100 yards of concrete, 

3-in. broken stone having 50% voids, 
2-in. broken stone having 40% voids. 

The 2-in. stone will fill the voids of the 3-in. stone; the sand will 
fill the voids of the 2-in stone; the cement will fill the voids of 
the sand; 10 bbl. cement will make one cu. yd. What is the 
percentage of the mixture? 

6. Draw outline of arch, of reinforced concrete, 100-ft. span, 
ornamental design, and give principle for calculating same. 

7. Describe the design aiid construction of a retaining wall. 

8. How would you collect data for passing a large trunk sewer 
or roadway through an embankment and under the roadbed of a 
steam railway? Show by sketch. 

9. Give the adjustments of the transit in their order, and 
duties of transitman when accurate work is required. 

10. Give the adjustments of the level and duties of a leveler 
for accurate work. 

11. Explain in detail a complete topographical stadia survey, 
its advantages and limitations. 

12. Show a monthly estimate of contractor of, piles furnished 
in place, yellow pine lumber, brickwork, concrete above water and 
steel beams, prices consistent with foundation work, estimate to 
be assumed about middle of work. 



24 

13. Bulk in place being assumed at 100, what would be the 
percentage in embankment for loam, dry; loam, wet; loam, rolled; 
soft clay; stiff clay; sand; gravel? 

14. Describe the construction of macadam roads; give their 
principal features and outline specifications for 100 ft. of same. 

15. Describe the construction of Telford roads; state their char- 
acteristics, and write specifications for 100 ft. of same. 

16. What are wooden piles used for? How is their bearing 
power determined? 

17. Sketch sewer manhole and show connection with main sewer. 

18. What do you consider a suitable maximum and minimum 
grade for roads? For streets? 

19. A road having an 8% grade is intersected by a road hav- 
ing a 6% grade at right angles. Show sketches of intersection, 
giving all dimensions. 

20. A circular sewer has inside diameter of 9 ft. Sketch sewer of 
another type, vertical height 4 ft., to be just as efficient. 

21. Describe the method of laying asphalt pavement over old 
block pavement. What precautions would you take? 

22. How would you drain an extensive park site? 



25 

ASSISTANT ENGmEER— AQUEDUCT COMMISSION. 

Miscellaneous Questions. 

1. Describe the duties of an Assistant Engineer in the Depart- 
ment. 

2. Given a water shed, having an area of 10 sq. miles with 
5% water surface. Calculate the storage necessary for daily sup- 
ply of five million gallons and the dimensions of a spillway to 
provide for a flood of 80 cu. ft. per second per sq. mile. 

3. Given an overflow masonry dam 8 ft. wide on top with 
vertical back, front batter 6 in. per ft., height 25 ft., weight of 
masonry 140 lb. per cu. ft., flood 2 ft. over, show whether or not 
the dam will be stable. 

4. How would you measure the discharge of a small stream (a) 
on which a tight dam is situated; (h) without a dam. 

5. Describe in detail how you would make a topographical sur- 
vey and map of a w^ater-shed, 15 miles long, 2 to 6 miles wide, 
for 5 ft. contours, giving organization of field and office forces, in 
struments and supplies. 

6. Calculate the opening necessary in a road culvert having 
a fall of 3 in. in 30 ft., to carry the flood flow of a brook drain- 
ing 1.25 sq. miles of farm country, with a general slope of 5 ft. 
in a thousand. 

7. How would you clean the aqueduct? 

8. How would you gauge the daily flow of the aqueduct ? 

9. What is the value of the co-efficient (n) in Kutter's formula, 
for the new aqueduct? 

10. Give the formula for flow of water and explain terms. 

11. Give the fundamental formula for amount of discharge and 
explain. 

12. An earth dam is to be 40 ft. high. Give the best cross-sec- 
tion and state in detail how you would construct such a dam. 

13. When, springs and fissures are encountered in a masonry 
dam site, how would you proceed? 

14. When a spring of very high head is encountered on a masonry 
dam site, how would you proceed? 



26 

15. What is "puddle"? What are the best proportions of ma- 
terial to form it? 

16. How would you prevent water following a pipe line through 
a dam? 

17. Give size, shape, etc., of stone and best method of build- 
ing a masonry dam. 

18. Suppose the upper surface of a dam to be vertical, (a) 
State at what depth the center of pressure of water will be lo- 
cated, (h) State what the pressure per foot of length of the dam 
would be, taking the depth as in (a). 

19. (a) In what part of a stream is the velocity greatest? (h) 
On what functions does the velocity of a stream depend? (c) De- 
scribe principal ways in which average velocity of stream is ob- 
tained. 

20. The velocity in a sewer running full equals the velocity 
when half full. Explain the reason for this. 

21. State all the points to be observed in building a perfect 
weir. 

22. What is the effect of imperfect contraction or of small depth 
of water over a weir. How is velocity of approach allowed for? 

23. Where does the contraction of the fluid vein have to be con- 
sidered in designing a pipe line? 

24. State all the losses of head in a pipe line, and how they are 
diminished. 

25. Give diagram of pipe line with undulating grade and show 
what is meant by hydraulic gradient. What provision should be 
made to insure successful work ? Note : the latter part of this ques- 
tion refers to the case v/hen the grade of the pipe is above the 
hydraulic gradient. 

26. Write a report on a site for an important dam. Also on 
a reservoir wall, an earth embankment and a puddle core wall. 



27 

ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 
Department of Water Supply and Aqueduct Commission. 

1899. 

1. What training and experience have you had in the design, 
construction and maintenance of water works ? 

2. {a) What is the maximum, minimum, and average annual 
rainfall in the Croton Valley? 

{!)) What proportion of this can be assumed as available for 
storage ? 

3. In building a masonry dam, state all precautions to be ob- 
served to prevent leakage and secure first-class work. 

4. {a) In building a dam, what would you do where small 
springs were encountered? 

{h) What, where large springs or considerable water? 

5. State, in detail, method of constructing an earthen dam. 

6. Give the different methods of measuring the velocity of flow 
in a stream. 

(&) Where is the maximum velocity in cross-section of stream? 

7. Given a reservoir dam, show lines of pressure and make cal- 
culation for stability. (Approximate result only.) 

8. Given a stream; volume 120 cu. ft. per sec, fall 12 ft., effi- 
ciency of wheel 80%, find foot-pounds of work of stream and horse- 
power of wheel. 



28 

ASSISTANT EA^GINEEE,— AQUEDUCT COMISSION. 

Promotiox Examination— 1903— Salary $1800. 

1. («) What is your age? {h) At what technical school did 
you graduate? When did you graduate? (c) If not a graduate, 
under what engineer have you studied, and how long have you 
studied? (d) State fully your full experience in charge of work, 
with dates. Xote. Omissions or discrepancies in dates count against 
the applicant. 

2. State fully the duties of the position to which you desire 
promotion. 

3. Describe the operation of cleaning the aqueduct. 

4. State how the daily flow in the aqueduct is gauged. 

5. In the application of Kutter's formula in computing the 
flow, state what the value of the coefficient (n) is found to be. 

6. In computing the flow in an open channel by the ordinary 
formula, what quantities are required? 

7. Suppose a dam is to be founded on rock, and on uncovering 
the rock it is found to be seamy, with water coming up at points, 
wliEit would you do? 

8. Suppose there is a spring w^ith considerable head, what can 
be done? 

9 and 10. Draw a section of an earthen dam to cross a valley, 
the depth to rock below the surface to the ground being 25 ft. 
at the deepest point, and the water surface to be 30 ft. above the 
ground at the same point. Give every detail to produce safe work 
and give reasons. 

11. What can be done to prevent water from flowing along a 
pipe which passes through a reservoir wall? 

12. In laying up a masonry dam, what measures as to shape of 
stone, cutting same, bounding same, and laying same, will tend to 
make the tightest work? 

13. (a) Describe the material which makes the best puddle. 
(h) Suppose you have to prepare puddles from materials on a work, 
how would you do it? 

14 and 15. Write a report on your examination of a valley for 
the best location of a dam. Describe fully the examination made, 
the result of your examinations, and the reason for the location 
you have made. 



29 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEE— AQUEDUCT COMISSION. 
Salary $1800. June 21, 1904. 

1. Does the quality of cement (particularly of Portland cement) 
for hydraulic work, depend in any way upon its storage? 

(a) If so, state clearly how it is affected by storage. 
(h) State what may be the after effect upon a structure of 
lack of care in this respect. 

(c) Describe the proper storage of cement. 

2. (a) Upon what does the imperviousness of concrete to the 
passage of water depend? (h) Describe clearly and fully the method 
you would take to determine the best proportions of the several 
ingredients in order to make water-tight concrete. 

3. State what you know about the mechanical anaylsis of sand, 
gravel, etc. 

4. When an earth bank for a reservoir, or canal, is to be placed 
on earth, does the surface need any preparation, and if so, what 
and why? 

5. (a) Suppose a masonry dam is to be founded on rock, and 
after excavating to it, the rock is found to be seamy with water 
flowing from the seams. How should the rock be treated? (h) 
If the springs are very strong flowing, what must be done? (c) 
In such a dam, what would determine the depth to which examina- 
tions by drill or otherwise, should be carried ? 

6. Make a sketch showing how the foot of a slope wall on the 
inside of an earthen reservoir bank should be supported and give 
your reasons for the construction shown ?^ 

7.- Write a suitable clause for the specifications for the stone 
work in a large masonry dam, describing the character of. the stone 
as to shape and dimensions and the bond to be observed ? State your 
reasons? (Stone setting is asked in next question.) 

8. Describe minutely everything to be done in setting a large 
rubble block in the heart of such a dam from the time the stone 
is lifted until the setting is complete? (h) What objections, if any, 
are there to the use of grout in such a case? State fully and 
clearly. 

9. (a) Describe clearly the usual method of tunneling in sound 
rock where timbering is not required? .(h) How may the progress 
and cost of a tunnel be affected by carelessness of the Contrac- 
tor in blasting and otherwise? 



30 

10. Sketch a form of centre with approximate dimensions to 
be used in treacherous rock in a tunnel like that of the Aqueduct? 

11. (a) In building a large sewer, or a piece of the Aqueduct 
where quicksand is encountered, how do you proceed to get sound 
work? (h) Under what conditions does quicksand of itself make 
a safe foundation? 

1. Find the area of an ellipse, whose diameters are respectively 
10 ft. and 6 ft. 

2. Find the solid contents of the frustum of a cone, whose 
radii are respectively 7 in. and 11 in., and whose height is 17 
in. 

3. In a rectangular borrow-pit 50 ft. by 40 ft., the following are 
the cuts at 10 ft. intervals, both ways. Compute the cut (omitting 
side slopes) by the shortest method of averages. 



7. 


5.6 


6.1 


6.7 


7.3 


8. 


6.6 


5.3 


6. 


6.5 


7. 


7.5 


6.3 


5.2 


6. 


6.2 


6.9 


7.2 


6.5 


5.1 


5.9 


6. 


6.5 


7. 


6. 


5. 


5.6 


5.9 


6.3 


6.6 



. 4. The average section of a stream for a distance of 100 ft. 
is as follows ; the fall of the stream is in the same distance 0.12 ft. : 



25 ft. Left. 


Depth 


= ft 


15 " 


u 


= 6 " 


5 " " 


ii 


= 8.5 " 


Center 


u 


= 10. " 


5 " Eight 


<' 


= 8.5 " 


15 " 


u 


= 6.0 " 


25 " 


u 


= 0.0 " 


Take (c) = 88 in the formula 


V = 


c yy R S 


the value of V, 







1. What is your age? 

2. Have you graduated from a technical school or college? (a) 
If so, give name and location of same, (h) State the date 
of entrance and of graduation? 

3. Have you studied under an Engineer in addition to a tech- 
nical course? (a) If so, give his name and residence, {h) State 
what your studies were under him. (c) State how long you were 
a student under him. (d) Give the date when you began with him 
and when you finished, (e) State what work in the field you did 
while studying under an Engineer. 



31 

4. In addition to your experience while a student, state every 
other item of practical experience you have had. (a) In each case 
state location and kind of work, (h) State in every case what you 
had to do with it personally — that is, your position and specific 
duties, (c) State when you began the work in every case, and 
when your connection with it ceased. 

5. State any other facts or experience which tend to make your 
services of value as an Assistant Engineer. 

6. Give the names and addresses of at least two persons to whom 
application can be made for verification of the answers to the 
foregoing questions. 



32 

BOARD OF WATER SUPPLY. 

Assistant Engineer — General — Technical. 

Salary $1 350 per Annum. 

October 12, 1905. 

Note: Elaborate discussions are not required. Clear, concise- 
answers covering the essential points will receive highest rating. 

1. State (without describing in detail) the several adjustments, 
in their proper order of {a) the surveyor's transit; (Z)) level.'- 

2. Explain briefly the method of stadia survey and show a form 
for notes, filling in such as are taken in the field and leaving 
blank those which are worked out in the ofiice. 

3. Explain how a drainage area is determined. 

4. (a) How is the total rainfall for any area determined? {!)) 
How the available rainfall? (c) State the full information for 
both necessary for purposes of securing water supply. 

. 5. Describe briefiy the several methods of measuring the flow 
of water in streams. 

6. JS^ame the watersheds available for supply of New York 
City and state briefly the advantages and disadvantages of each. 

7. («) Give the Chezy formula and explain its terms, (h) In 
what does Kutter's formula modify it? 

8. State the causes of failure of retaining walls and the pre- 
cautions necessary to prevent failure. 

9. State briefly the important points regarding mixing (by ma- 
chine) and placing heavy concrete masonry. 

10. Describe briefly the several methods of sinking wooden piles 
and the conditions under which each would be used. 

11. Discuss briefly the methods of handling quicksand in con- 
structive work. 

12. Draw a section of an earth dam, the depth of rock below 
earth surface being 20 ft.; the water surface to be 25 ft. above the 
ground. Show every detail to produce safe work. 

13. Explain briefly the method of tunneling through rock. 

14. Same through soft mud below water. 



33 

15. State the prismoidal formula and show by sketches its use in 
calculating the contents of an earth embankment. 

Mathematics. 
Give all the figuring on the ruled sheets. 

1. Extract the square root of 2030.4063036 to four places of deci- 
mals. 

2. Reduce 35.2 in. per second to feet per minute and miles 
per hour. 

3. Find the area of a triangle the sides of which are 50, 60 
and TO ft. respectively. 

4. How many cubic feet of water per second will be discharged 
by a canal 125 ft. wide at top, 75 ft. wide at bottom, 10 ft. deep 
and 2 640 ft. long with a fall of 40 ft. (Take c equals 88.) 

5. "Wliat is the weight of a cast-iron pipe 12 ft. long, 4 ft. inside 
diameter, 1 in. thick, allowing 2^% for increase of metal in hub 
and spigot? 

Report. 

Assume reasonable facts and write a suitable report of not less 
than two nor more than three pages on any one of the following 
subjects : 

(a) The general avalability of the Watershed as a source of 
supply for New York City. 

(h) The Hudson River as a possible source of supply. 

(c) A proposed filtration system. 

{d) A proposed storage reservoir adjacent to New York. 

(e) The comparative merits of a steel re-enforced concrete con- 
duit and a brick conduit. 

(f) Possible methods of reducing water consumption in New 
York. 



34 

ASSISTANT EJSTGINEEE— INTERMEDIATE GRADE. 

Salary $1650. 

October 17, 1905. 

1. Describe the making of an accurate triangulation survey. 

2. State the principle (a) of the pressure of water; (h) of the 
siphon. 

3. Discuss the use of steel to re-enforce concrete. 

4. Explain the method of designing a steel water tower 100 ft. 
high, 40 ft. in diameter. 

5. Outline specifications for brick mortar and work of con- 
struction of a large brick conduit. 

6. Show by sketches and describe the method of carrying a 
large conduit over a marsh. 

7. Describe clearly the method of accurately determining the 
character of foundation for an important dam. 

8. Explain in detail the most accurate way of gauging the 
velocity of a stream. 

9. Explain the method of designing a masonry arch viaduct to 
carry an aqueduct. 

10. State what you know regarding evaporation from water sur- 
face, from snow and ice and from earth. 

11. State what you know regarding sedimentation in reservoirs 
and its prevention. 

12. State the important points to be considered in the construc- 
tion of an open canal for carrying water supply. 

13. Describe the theoretical design of a. heavy masonry dam. 

14. State the important details of construction of (a) a heavy 
masonry dam; (h) such features as are peculiar to concrete. 

15. Show a proper form for an intermediate monthlj- estimate 
to a contractor of following items, with reasonable cost prices: 
(a) Clearing and grubbing; (h) Earth excavation (with convenient 
waste) ; (c) Rock excavation (in considerable quantity) ; (d) Sheet 
piling, left in place; (e) Concrete; 1, 3, 5 (in mass); (f) Ran- 
dom, coursed rubble monumental masonry. 



35 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEK— HIGHEST GRADE. 

Salary $2 000. 

October 17th, 1905. 

16. Describe how the flow of water in circulating pipes is af- 
fected by friction, stating the various cases and assigning values 
for each and quoting your authority. 

/it. Explain how to ascertain the time required to empty a 
reservoir. 

18. State all the important points which should be considered 
in the choice of a reservoir site for gravity water supply. 

19. Design an "aqueduct" section conduit of concrete re-en- 
forced with steel. 

20. Describe fully a system of water filtration suitable for a 
large city. 

21. A stone arch bridge must take the drainage of 5 000 acres. 
How many cubic feet per second must be carried? (Use formula 

Q equals c y \/S 0^, in which c equals 50, y equals 1.5 and s 
equals 12. 

22. Assume bridge semi-circular for 50 ft. roadway; design 
opening and show by sketches approximate construction. 

23. State briefly the successive steps necessary to secure in- 
formation regarding the availability of a watershed for purposes 
of water supply. 

24. Explain the theory of rain and that of the amount of 
rainfall as affected by winds and mountain ranges. 

25. Discuss the important points to be considered in the con- 
struction of a large distributing reservoir as is proposed near 
Yonkers. 



36 

DEPAETMENT OF DOCKS AND FERRIES— PEOMOTION 
TO ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 

August 18th, 1896. 

1. Describe in full, detail of operation of making a hydrographic 
survey for a pier on the North River, together with the location 
of property lines. 

2. Give specimen page of a note book containing such a survey. 

3. Describe methods pursued in obtaining a knowledge of the 
earth strata, etc., at the site of the pier. 

4. Give careful pencil sketch, with dimensions of the standard 
form of wall used by the Department where the mud is very 
deep. 

5. What type of wall is used in hard bottom and what type 
where rock is near the surface? 

6. State as fully as possible the reasons for the adoption of 
this method of construction. 

7. What is the angle of repose as applied to earth and what 
relation does it bear to the angle of maximum pressure? 

8. In case of retaining wall, at what angle will the earth sus- 
tain rupture, in case of the movement of the wall? 

9. In what ways do retaining walls fail? 

10. Without increasing the dimensions of a retaining wall what 
precautions in filling behind it, will increase its safety? 

11. A derrick has a mast 40 ft. high, a beam 35 ft. long, and 
a topping lift 25 ft. long. There is a weight of 10 tons supported 
at the end of the beam. What is the horizontal pressure at the 
top of the mast? 

12. In the testing of elastic material, such as iron, what is 
the meaning of the term "elastic limit" and about what propor- 
tion does the stress at that point bear to the ultimate strength? 

13. What are the respective weights of- a cubic foot of fresh 
and salt water? 

14. What is the standard weight of the atmosphere? 

15. In using drift bolts for fastening timber what precautions 
are necessary to obtain the greatest possible holding power in the 
timber ? 

16. Describe the building of a standard concrete block in de- 
tail. 

17. Describe the setting and lining up of one of these blocks. 



37 

EXAMINATION FOE PEOMOTION TO ASSISTANT EN- 
GINEER. 

Department of Docks and Ferries. 

December 1st, 1899. 

1. State your age and training and experience you have had 
in any form in connection with the design, construction or mainte- 
nance of wharves, docks, bulkheads or any other works of a similar 
nature. 

2. What pressure per square foot of foundation would you con- 
sider it. safe to allow on a gravel bottom or one of coarse sand, 
when it can be protected from wash or other disturbance? 

3. (a) On what elements does the bearing power of a pile 
depend ? 

(b) How would you decide upon the safe load to be applied 
to any given pile which you have seen driven? 

4. When the foundation of a bulkhead is on rock, is any prepar- 
ation of the rock ever necessary; and if so, what, and for what 

reasons ? 

5. Suppose a pile near the outer end of a pier to have an 
average diameter of 15 in., and the depth of water to be 35 ft. 
What would be the total pressure against its surface resulting 
from a tidal current with an average velocity of 4 miles per hour? 

6. (a) Give careful sketches (plan, etc.), on a large enough 
scale to show clearly every part (fastenings included) of the outer 
80 ft. of a pier 60 ft. in width, with dimensions of parts. 

7. Give careful sketches of one panel of an iron and slate roof 
and supports for such roof, dimensions of parts not required, but 
constants for loading, strength of iron, channels, angles and rivet- 
ing to be given. 

Second Paper. 

1. When a bulkhead must be built on material which is com- 
pressible and unstable to a considerable depth, show how substan- 
tial work may be done and explain principles governing the design 
of such work. • 

2. State all requirements of a strictly first-class pile for im- 
portant work. • 

3. (a) Stat-e the difficulties encountered in using fresh concrete 
under water, and all the ways you know of for doing such work 
in a reasonably satisfactory manner, when it must be done. 



38 

(h) State wliat tests a cement should stand which is to be 
used in the manufacture of bulkhead blocks. 

4. (a) State what ingredients in cement are detrimental? 

(h) To get the very best hold in timber when round bolts are 
used, how must the work of boring be done and what precaution 
must be taken? 

5. Describe the best method of setting concrete blocks for a 
bulkhead under water, including location as to line and level 
and every element of good work. 

6. Describe in full detail the method of sounding an area under 
water in a tideway so as to get accurate depths and locations. 

7. To what plane of reference should surroundings in a harbor 
be referred, and for what reasons? 



39 

ASSISTANT ENGINEER— DEPARTMENT OF DOCKS. 

1. What experience have you had in the design, construction 
and maintenance of docks and buU^heads ? 

2. Sketch section of standard bulkhead where good bottom is 
found at moderate depth. 

3. How should cement be tested for use under water? 

4. Sketch section of standard bulkhead where poor bottom is 
found at considerable depth. 

5. How would you determine safe bearing power of piles? 

6. State all the methods you know of for sounding under water. 

7. Give all details of making large concrete blocks used in 
bulkheads. 



40 

ASSISTANT ENGINEER— SEWEK DEPARTMENT 

April 24th, 1899. 

1. What methematical knowledge should an assistant engineer 
in the sewer department possess? Give your reasons. 

2. What are all of the duties that an assistant engineer may be 
called upon to perform? 

3. Describe what experience you have had in this work that 
entitles you to promotion. 

4. Explain in detail all the refinements that should be observed 
by the leveler and rodman in running an accurate line of levels. 

5. What method should a transitman and flagman observe in 
running a long transit line accurately? 

6. (a) How frequently should receiving basins be placed on a 
street? What rule governs this? 

(h) How frequently should manholes be placed on a street? 
Give your reasons. 

7. Should a sewer built to carry off the rainfall from a thou- 
sand acres be ten times as large as one built to carry off the rain- 
fall from 100 acres? Give your reasons. 

• 8. How would you measure the quantity of water flowing in a 
sewer ? 

9. Calculate the diameter of a sewer to carry off one inch of 
rain per hour from 100 acres, the grade being 1 in. in 100 feet. 
Assume formula as follows: 



D = yj Q-^ L --- 1.5 H. 

Q = Cu. ft. per sec. of water discharged. 
L = Length of sewer in feet. 
H = Fall per feet. 
D = Diameter in feet. 

10. State what you understand by "separate" and "combined" 
systems of sewers, and which you consider the better in any case. 

11. Describe and sketch the best bond for use in brick sewers 
and state why. 

12. Describe the proper method of joining a brick sewer to 
main sewer as regards to shape, grade, and everything that may 
appertain thereto, with reasons. 



41 

13. Sketch a complete cross-section of a large brick sewer (giv- 
ing dimensions) to be built across a very soft piece of ground, 
showing whole construction, including foundation. 

14. How would you determine the safe weight to put upon a 
given pile you may have seen driven? 

12. (a) What is the largest size of vitrified pipe in use? 
(h) Give in detail the best manner for laying pipe so as to 
give the freest flow in a seM^er of small descent. 

16. Write a report, as an assistant engineer, to your superior 
on the most important work you have been connect^ with; giv- 
ing a description of the work, what has been accomplished; the 
reason why certain plans were followe(i, and everything else that 
you think would be of account in such a report. 



42 

ASSISTANT ENGINEER— SEWER DEPARTMENT. 

New York City, November 29, 1899. 

1. What training and experience have you had in the design, 
construction and maintenance of sewers? 

2. Sketch standard manhole for 36-in. brick sewer with 12-in. 
pipe branch; show elevation of section across sewer and plan at 
about flow line. 

3. (a) For what rate of rainfall should sewers in New York 
City be designed? 

(h) What proportion of this is assumed as reaching the sewer? 
Is it a constant, and show, if you can, how this is introduced in 
the formulas for diameter of sewers. 

4. When would you use the egg-shaped section for sewers? 

5. When is the velocity greatest in a sewer, when it is running 
full or half full or how is it? 

6. (a) What is meant by hydraulic mean radius? 

(h) Does resistance to flow depend on this, and how? 

' 7. What is the least allowable velocity of flow in sewers, and 
why? 

8. What is the best bond for brick sewers? 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



Assistant Engineer 
General, Aqueduct, Docks, Sewers & Highways 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 



Assistant Engineer — General. 

1. What are the duties of an assistant engineer? 

He is usually required to take responsible charge of one or 
more parties or sections of work. He must direct such work, look 
after all details, handle his men to advantage and protect 
the interests of the City. He may be placed in charge of surveys 
for topographical, hydraulic, drainage, street opening and other 
purposes, or on construction of bridges, sewers, water works, docks, 
highways, &c. He is often required to prepare plans, specifications 
and estimates or examine and report on the condition and quality 
of work in progress. 

The assistant engineer is expected to be familiar with the 
work of the computer, draftsman, surveyor and estimator, and to pos- 
sess executive ability, initiative capacity, tact and judgment. 

2. What is meant by the acceleration of gravity? 

The acceleration of gravity is the increase in the velocity of 
a freely falling body. A body starting from a state of rest, ac- 
quires a velocity of 32.16 ft. at the end of the first second, 64.32 
at the end of the 2nd second, &c. The acceleration (g) is thus 
32.16 ft. per sec. 



3. Through what distance does an ordinary body fall in the 
1st, 2nd and 3rd seconds; what is its velocity at the end of each 
second, in feet? 

Distance passed through in first second — Si = 16 08 ft. 

2 seconds = ^o = * X 16.C8. 
'f 3 " =>S^3 = 9 X 16.08. 

n - =S^ = n^x}g. 

Therefore 

Distance passed through in 2nd second = S., — S^ = 3 x 16.08 
= 48.24'. 

Distance passed through in 3rd second = S^ — 8-2 = 5 x 16.08 = 
80.40. 

Distance passed through in nth second =S,^ — S„_i = [ii^ — {n — 1)^] 
X 16.08. 

The velocitv at the end of the nth. second = n x 32.16. 



45 

4. Do these distances hold good at all points on the earth's 
surface? If not, where are they least and where most? 

The value of the acceleration of gravity, and therefore the 
quantities depending upon it are not the same in all parts of the 
earth. It is least at the equator and greatest at the poles. It 
is modified by the form and rotation of the earth. 

The earth being an ellipsoid and not a sphere, the surface 
at the equator is farther from the center than it is at the poles, 
and the velocity of rotation at the equator is therefore also greater ; 
the result being that g at the equator is less than at the poles, the 
difference being about 0.16 ft. per sec. 

5. "What is the specific gravity of a body? 

The specific gravity is the weight of the body as compared 
with the weight of an equal volume of pure water, at 4° C. It is 
equal to its weight in air divided by the loss of weight when im- 
mersed in water. 



6. What is the standard for solid and liquids? 

The standard is pure water at 62° F. 32° F. and 39.1° F. are 
sometimes used as standard temperatures. 



7. What for gases? 

The standard for gases is air at atmospheric pressure (15 lb. 
per sq. in), and at 32° F. 



8. What is the standard weight of the atmosphere? 
The standard weight is 0. 080728 lb. per cu. ft. 



9. What are the respective weights of a cubic foot of fresh 
and salt water? 

Fresh water weighs about 62^ lb. per cu. ft. 
Salt water weighs about 64 lb. per cu. ft. 



10. Give the weights of cast iron, wrought iron, water, moist 
sand, concrete, brickwork (close joints), and limestone masonry. 



46- 



,igh 


t of cast iron = 450 lbs. pei 




" wrought iron = 480 " " 




" moist sand = 100 " " 




" brickwork = 100 " " 




" limestone masonry = 150 " " 




" rubble = 150 " " 




" concrete = 130 " " 




" cement natural = 60 " " 




" cement Portland = 80 " " 




" mortar = 100 " " 



11. What is the center of gravity of a body? 

The center of gravity is that point through which passes the 
resultant of all the forces of gravitation acting on the elementary 
particles of the body so that if suspended at this point all the parts 
will be" in equilibrium. 

^-| 12. How is it found? 

In regular homogeneous bodies it coincides with the center of 
figure. 

The position in irregular bodies may be found by experiment or 
by dividing the body into simple figures in which the position of 
the center of gravity is known and then computing by moments the 
position of the center of gravity of the entire body. 

-^13. Where is the center of gravity of a homogeneous body whose 
sides are all rectangles? 

At the center of figure. 

14. What is the ordinary velocity of sound per second, and does 
it vary with the temperature or not? If so, how? 

The ordinary velocity is 1 090 ft. per second in air at 32° F. It 
varies with the temperature, increasing about a foot for each degree 
increase in temperature, being about 1 060 ft. per sec. for 0° F., and 
1 160 ft. per sec. for 100° F. 



15. What is the boiling point of water at sea level, and how does 
it change as you rise above sea level ? What change for 5 000 ft. 
rise ? 

At sea level water boils at 212° F. The boiling point decreases 
about 1° for each 520 feet rise, being about 202° at 5 000 ft. 



47 

16. State (without describing in detail) the several adjustments 
in their proper order of (a) the surveyor's transit; (h) level. 

(a) The adjustments of the transit are: 

1. Adjustment for parallax — to bring the image in the plane of 
the cross hairs. 

2. Adjustment of the plate levels — to make them perpendicular 
to the vertical axis, so that the plate will be horizontal when bubbles 
are in the center. 

3. Adjustment of the cross hairs — to make the line of sight per- 
pendicular to the horizontal axis, so that it will generate a plane as 
telescope is revolved in altitude. 

4. Adjustment of the horizontal axis — to make it perpendicular 
to the vertical axis, so that the line of sight will generate a vertical 
plane as telescope is revolved in altitude. 

5. If telescope is provided with a bubble tube the axis of the 
tube must be made parallel to the line of sight, if the instrument 
is to be used for leveling. 

(h) The adjustments of the level are: 

1. Adjustment for parallax. 

2. Adjustment of cross hairs — to make the line of sight coincide 
with the axis of the telescope. 

3. Adjustment of the long bubble — to make the axis of the tube 
parallel to and in the same plane with the line of collimation. 

4. Adjustment of the Ys or standards — to make the axis of the 
pivot rings perpendicular to the vertical axis, so that the bubble 
will remain in center in all positions of the telescope. 



17. Describe the making of an accurate triangulation survey. 

A reconnaissance is first made of the area to be surveyed, with 
a view to the best possible location of base lines and triangulation 
stations. 

Base lines as long as possible near each end of the area are 
selected, monumented, and chained, using all possible refinements 
so that the error does not exceed 1 in 100 000. 

The stations at the ends of one of the base lines are then occupied 
by the transit instrument, and angles read to all visible triangula- 
tion stations which have previously been selected or established. 

The instrument should be the best obtainable, the adjustments 
as perfect as possible and all precautions taken to eliminate error. 
The angles should be read by repetition and series and the work 
held to a possible error of one second per angle or less. The closing 
angle to complete the horizon should be taken at each station 
occupied. 



48 



Each triangulation station is then occupied in turn, angles being' 
taken to all others visible, until every possible station, including 
those at the ends of the second base line, have been occupied. 

The angles are then examined, errors distributed and the co- 
ordinates of each station computed, starting with the co-ordinates 
of either base and checking on the length and bearing of the other. 



18. Describe in detail how you would make a topographical 
survey and map of a watershed 15 miles long, 2 to 6 miles wide, 
for 5 ft. contours, giving organization of field and office forces, 
instruments and supplies. 



The first consideration is the amount of time given to complete 
the survey. Taking one year as the basis, the work would be 
divided into three divisions, each about five miles long, headquarters 
being centrally established for each division. 

The organization of the forces would be as follows : 



Chief 
Engineer 
in Charge 
of Work. 



Division A. 

3 Field Par- 
ties and of- 
fice staff. . . 



Division B. 

3 Field Par- 
ties and of- 
fice staff. 

Division C. 

3 Field Par- 
ties and of- 
fice staff. . 



1 Assistant or Division Engineer in charge. 
3 Transitmen or Assistant Engineers in 

charge field parties. 
3 Levelers assigned to field parties. 
10 Axemen and Eodmen. 
3 Draftsmen and Computers. 

2 to 4 Laborers — (Drivers or Caretakers). 

3 to 5 Computers and Draftsmen in office. 



-{ Same as Division A. 

I 

J Same as Division A. 

I 



The equipment of each division would be 3 transits (stadia) 
and necessary bobs, sighting apparatus 3 levels and necessary level- 
ing rods, 3 plane tables and necessary stadia rods. 

A liberal supply of tapes, axes and usual surveyor's sundries. 

Two horses, a stage and a buggj% necessary attachments, office 
furniture, draughting materials, etc. 

The first step in the survey is to establish a primary traverse 
system (which should be tied to some established lines) around the 
reservoir site, monumenting all principal points balancing, and 
plotting the work. The error in the primary traverse work should 
not exceed 1 in 50 000. The main traverse can then be divided into 
squares having sides of about ^ mile in length, all stations being 
referenced, co-ordinates computed and plotted. 



49 

During the progress of the traversing, lines of bench levels 
starting at a known point should be run accurately around the 
watershed following the main traverse lines, the elevations of all 
stations being determined. 

Plane table sheets covering about -| X 1 "^i^e of area and 
mounted on rollers should in the meantime be prepared by the 
draftsman, the scale being 1 in. = 100 ft. 

The established traverses should be plotted on the sheets and 
the field parties given a list of all references, co-ordinates, benches, 
etc., that they may have occasion to use. 

Sheets are assigned to the several parties, who fill in all topo- 
graphical details, recording elevation of all hollows, ridges, water 
surfaces, changes of slope and grades of roads and other points 
controlling the positions of contours. The location of all points 
may be obtained with the stadia and vertical angle and the contours 
interpolated, or where the ground is not too steep the contour may 
be directly "followed" with the level and rod and correctly drawn 
on the sheets. All buildings, fences, property lines, roads, streams, 
ponds, culverts and all other details must be obtained. 

Additional stations and benches are established by the several 
parties as required. 

As each sheet is finished it should be turned over to the drafts- 
man and inked while the details are fresh in the mind, and other 
sheets assigned to the field party until the entire area has been 
mapped. As adjacent sheets are completed they are carefully com- 
pared so that any error in the work can be detected. 



• 19. Explain briefly the method of stadia survey and show a form 
for notes, filling in such as are taken in the field and leaving blank 
those which are worked out in the office. 

The transit should be supplied with a compass and a vertical 
arc. The rods should be of the self-reading pattern, easily read 
from the instrument. Make all the adjustments and note the index 
error of the vertical arc. Measure the focal distance (f) of the 
objective and the distance (c) from the reticule to the objective, 
giving the stadia constant (f + c). 

Stake out a line about 800 ft. -\- (f + c) setting stakes at 
100 + f -f- c from point of beginning and at every 100 ft. point 
thereafter. 

Set up transit at the zero of the line and take readings on 
stadia rod held at each stake. The hairs should be adjusted so 
that 1 ft. on rod will equal 100 ft. (-|- f -\- c) from instrument, or 



50 



the ratio per hundred feet may be obtained from the observed 
readings. 




s :g ::i:f 

^ = -_ = /,• s D = hs ^ (f ~\- c). 
i 

Run a traverse around area to be surveyed, obtaining lengths 
of the sides with the stadia, and their azimuths ; also establish bench 
marks around the traverse, obtaining elevations of all stations. 

The azimuth of the starting courses may be obtained by an 
observation on Polaris or by traversing from known lines. To get 
the azimuth of the succeeding course, set vernier on azimuth of 
back course, sight on back station with the telescope normal, plunge 
telescope and turn on forward station. The reading on the limb 
Avill be the new azimuth. The back sights and fore sights should 
be taken and averaged for the lengths of the courses and the lengths 
reduced to the horizontal. 

After the traverse has been closed, set up on each transit sta- 
tion, take shots on all prominent points, such as tops of ridges and 
hottom of hollows, fences, buildings, roads, streams, culverts, noting 
the azimuths, distances to each and vertical angles when the latter 
exceed about 5°. All other details should be located and amplified 
Iby sketches when necessary. 

Auxiliary stations should be established when required, as judg- 
ment dictates. 

When a station is once occupied care should be taken that all 
necessary data are obtained from it. 

Wheinever the transit or level is set up at a new point a check 
reading should first be taken on an established point to check the 
orientation and the H. I. 

By means of a stadia chart or table the observed distances are 
reduced to the horizontal. The notes should be plotted as soon as 
possible while still fresh in the mind. (For inclined sites, distance 
^ k s C0S.2 a -{- (c -{- f) COS. a and diff." elev. = -J A; s sin. 2a + 
(c + f) sin a. 

The contours may be interpolated between the plotted points 
or the^r may be directly "followed" and changes in direction located. 



51 



FORM OF NOTES. 



Df 


ite 




Parfv 


( 






Remarks and Sketches. 




--. ^ 




Sta 


Azim. 


D 

F.S. 


ISTANC 

B. S. 


E. 

Av. 


V. A. 


Hor. 
Dist. 


Diff. 

in 
Elev. 

+0 


Elev. 




*p 


*F 


*F 


*F 


to 


*F 


to 


. to 





* Columns marked F are filled out in field. 
t " " O '■• '^ '' " office, 



r^O. What methods are usually employed in calculating earth- 
work? Describe them. 

There are two methods in common use: 

1. The average end area method. 

2. The prismoidal formula. 

In the first case volume included between two successive stations 
A -\- A^ 

= X I 



A = area section at one end. 
^j = area section at other end. 
I = distance between ends. 



By prismoidal formula 



I 



Vol. = (A + ^^ + 4J.m)X— . Am = Area of section midway 

6 
between A and A^. 

The sum of all the partial volumes will give the total volume. 
The areas of the cross-section at any station may be obtained — 

1. By means of the planimeter. 

2. By direct computation, from the cuts and fills. 

3. By plotting on cross-section paper and counting squares. 

4. By cutting sections out of cardboard and weighing same, the 
unit weight being known. 



52 

21. What are the several qualities of cast and wrought iron 
which make them useful for various classes of engineering con- 
struction ? Describe briefly the work for which each is well adapted 
and in general the methods by which you would test them. 

Cast iron is durable, possesses great strength in compression, 
and can be readily cast in any desirable shape, making it a conveni- 
ent material to use for water pipes, columns, column footings, bed 
plates for machinery, etc. 

It, however, is brittle and should not be used where subject to 
heavy vibration, impact or tensile stresses. 

In inspecting castings, look for honeycomb. Blow holes or sand 
holes when filled with sand or loam are detected by a dullness in 
sound on tapping. Examine also for shrinkage cracks, large ridges 
at partings and flaws on edges; warped castings and those of incor- 
rect dimensions should be rejected. 

For testing the strength, bars 14 or 26 in. long, 3 in. wide and 
1 in. thick are prepared and the breaking load transversely and 
in tension obtained, the resulting deflection and elongation being 
also noted. 

Two principal varieties of cast iron are made: White, which is 
hard, brittle and difficult to work; gray, which is soft, tough and 
malleable when cold. 

They differ in the amount of carbon in chemical combination. 

Wrought iron is adapted to structures which are subject to alter- 
nating compressive and tensile stresses, but in which the unit 
stresses are not excessive, such as rivets, beams, girders, truss mem- 
bers, columns, etc. The metal is durable, malleable, elastic and 
readily worked. 

In inspecting wrought iron look for "cold short" (containing 
phosphorus), indicated by bright crystalline fracture and discolored 
spots; also for red short (containing sulphur, arsenic, etc.), indi- 
cated by cracks on edges of bars. 

Tough iron has a fine, fibrous and close texture. 

Wrought iron is tested by bending prepared bars hot and cold. 
No fracture should result. 

The tensile strength is determined from' test pieces usually about 
18 in. long by 1 in. wide, and the original thickness. 

22. Name the common kinds of wood used in building and state 
the purpose for which each is used. 

Ash — Used for interior and cabinet work. 
Cedar — Used for posts, ties and fences. 
Cypress — Used for interior work. 
Elm — Used for ties and bridge timber. 



53 

Hemlock — Used for rough lumber for construction. 
Locust — Used for fence posts and ties. 
Maple — Used for interior work. 

Oak — Used for ties, posts and where strength is required. 
Palmetto — Used for under water construction. 
Pine, red, yellow, white — Used for all construction purposes. 
Spruce — Used for piles and construction purposes. 
Walnut — Used for interior work. 

Note : For complete table of properties of woods see Byrne's 
^'Inspector's Pocketbook," p. 56. 

23. How may timber be preserved from decay? 

There are several methods in use for the preservation of timber : 

1. BiTrnettizing or impregnation of the timber with chloride 
of zinc. 

2. Impregnation with copper or zinc sulphate. 

3. Kyanizing — Impregnation with bichloride of mercury. 

4. Creosoting — Impregnation with creosote or dead oil of coal 
tar. 

In all these cases, the timber is heated, the sap vaporized, the 
air exhausted from the pores by means of a pump and the preserva- 
tive forced into the pores under pressure. 

5. Vulcanizing — In this case the wood is heated while under 
air pressure. The operation renders the sap insoluble and the 
timber durable. 



24. What kind of timber resists decay longest under ground? 
Under water? 

Under ground — Cedar, locust, chestnut, oak. 
Under water — Palmetto wood of Florida. 



25. Name the common kinds of stone used in building. 

The more common building stones are granites, sandstones, slates, 
limestones and marbles. 



26. What is hydraulic cement and how many kinds do you 
know of? 'WTbiat is the essential difference in their manufacture? 

Cement which possesses the property of setting under water is 
called hj'draulic cement. 

There are three varieties of hydraulic cement : Portland cements, 
natural cements, and Puzzolana. 



54 

Portland is made of an artificial mixture of the ingredients 
ground, roasted and powdered. 

Rosendale is prepared by calcining and powdering a natural 
stone. 

Puzzolana does not require any roasting but is simply prepared 
by powdering the natural rock. 



27. How would you test cements? 

Cements are tested to determine their 

1. Fineness. 

2. Setting. 

3. Soundness. 

4. Specific gravity. 

5. Strength. 

1. Fineness is determined by passing the cement through sieves 
of various meshes and noting the percentages retained. 

2. Setting is determined by making pats of the cement and not- 
ing the time before they resist penetration of wires of specified 
weight. ' 

3. Soundness is tested by noting the condition of the edges of 
the pats; also by subjecting pats to a steam bath and observing if 
they blow, swell or crack. 

4. Specific gravity is determined by weighing a given volume 
in air and noting the loss of weight when immersed in a liquid of a 
known specific gravity such as alcohol, which does not act upon 
the cement. Special apparatus is made for the purpose. 

5. Strength is determined by preparing in moulds briquettes 
1 sq. in. in section, permitting them to remain in air and under 
water specified periods and then breaking in testing machine, noting 
the breaking loads. 



28. What is the meaning of the term "setting" as applied to 
cement ? 

Setting refers to the process of chemical combination which 
takes place among the particles of cement when subject to the 
action of water, resulting in its hardening. 

29. What kind of sand should be used in mortar and how do 
you test its quality? 

Sand for mortar should be fine grained, clean, sharp and free 
from loam, clay and other impurities. 
Sand is tested for 



55 

1. Fineness — Determined by passing through sieves of known 
meshes and noting the percentages retained. 

2. Cleanness — Tested by rubbing a sample between the fingers 
and noting if dust adheres to them. 

3. Sharpness — Tested by examination with the aid of a lens. 

4. Freedom from impurities. 

Presence of salts is determined by adding nitric acid and 
nitrate of silver to a sample of the sand previously allowed to settle 
in distilled water. A white precipitate indicates the salt. 

Clay is determined by permitting a sample to settle in water. 
The clay, if present, will separate in a distinct layer. 

^ 30. What is mortar composed of, and liow mixed ? 

Mortar is composed of lime or cement mixed with sand and a 
sufficient quantity of water to make the mass plastic. The propor- 
tion of the ingredients depends upon their character and the pur- 
pose for which the mortar is to be used. 

The sand and cement are spread dry in alternate layers in a 
mixing box or on a platform and turned repeatedly with shovels 
until the mixture appears entirely uniform, when it is spread out 
basin like, having a depression in the center into which the water 
is poured. By means of a hoe the dry mixture is then drawn into 
the water and worked until the ingredients are thoroughly incor- 
porated and the mass uniform in character and of proper con- 
sistency. 

31. Describe a good quality of brick and state how you would 
know a good brick from a poor one? 

Good bricks are usually of dark reddish thrown color, emit a clear 
ringing sound when struck, absorb a small percentage of water, do 
not crumble easily and do not scale or swell in water. 

Poor bricks are reddish yellow in appearance, emit a dull sound 
when struck, absorb 15 to 25% of water, crumble easily and may 
scale or swell when left in water. 

32. To what tests would you subject a brick to determine 
whether or not it was suitable for use in street pavements? 

Bricks should be tested for 

1. Resistance to crushing. 

2. " ■ " cross breaking. 

3. " " abrasion or impact. - 

4. Porosity or absorbtive power. 

5. General appearance, fracture, etc. 



56 

""" 33. In how many ways is brick work bonded to make good work 
in heavy walls? 

The usual bonds are: 

1. ■ Cross Bond — A course composed of headers and stretchers 
intervening. The joints in the second stretcher course come in the 
middle of the first. 

2. English Bond — Alternate courses of headers and stretchers. 

3. Flemish Bond — Headers and stretchers alternating in the 
same course. 

4. Ordinary Bond — One header course following three or five 
successive stretcher courses. 

34. Describe "rubble" masonry, "ashlar" masonry, and "broken 
ashlar" masonry. 

Bubble is a class of masonry built of rough unsquared stones. 

Ashlar refers to masonry • built of stone blocks cut to regular 
figures and laid in courses usually of uniform height. 

Broken ashlar refers to masonry built of cut stone not laid in 
regular courses. 

35. Define the terms "quarry faced," "rough-pointed," "fine- 
axed," "bush-hammered" as applied to the dressing of stone. 

Quarry faced refers to a class of masonry in which the surfaces 
of the stones are not dressed. 

Bough pointed refers to surfaces of stones which have been 
dressed so that projections do not exceed i to 1 inch. 

Fine axed refers to surfaces of stones which have been rough 
pointed and then finished with a "fine axe" having a specified num- 
ber of blades to the inch. 

Bush hammered refers to surfaces which have been rough 
pointed, fine pointed and then finished with a bush hammer. 

36. What are "headers" and "stretchers" as referred to masonry? 

Headers are stones or bricks used for tying the face of a wall 
to the backing. They are set so that the greatest dimensions lie 
perpendicular to the face of the wall. 

Stretchers refer to stones or brick which have their greatest 
dimensions parallel to the face of the wall. 

37. What should be the proportion of "headers" to "stretchers"? 

The proportion depends upon the character of the work. In 
brick work every sixth course should be a^ header. 



57 




58 

In stone walls there should be one header to 3 stretchers or 1 
header for each 12 square feet of wall surface. 



38. Outline specifications for stone and laying of first-class 
ashlar granite masonry in a heavy retaining wall. 

The cement should be the best quality Portland, and should meet 
all usual requirements when tested. 

The sand must be clean, sharp, free from loam. 

The stone must be first-class granite, uniform color, free from 
seams and other defects. 

All stones must be cut to exact dimensions, the length not 
exceeding 4 times and the width not exceeding twice the depth. 

All angles and arrises must be true, well defined and sharp. 

Joints should be not more than -| in. wide and dressed to full 
depth of stone and properly broken in adjacent courses. 

Courses should be well bonded longitudinally and transversely, 
there being at least one header to every three stretchers. 

Face joints should be raked out for two inches before mortar 
has hardened and thoroughly pointed with 1 : 1 Portland cement 
mortar. 

Plug holes should be at least 3 in. from arrises. 

The dimensions will be taken as those of the least rectangle that 
will contain the stone. 

The surfaces shall be rock-faced with IJ-in. chisel draft at the 
arrises, cut on true lines. 

The rock face should be bold, 3 to 6 in. beyond the arrises. 

The stones should be laid on their natural bed and all joints 
full of mortar. Spawls may be used only to bring the stones level, 
but as few as possible are to go into the work. 

When work is done in cold weather special apparatus to heat 
the sand and stone must be provided. 

In hot weather the masonry should be protected and kept wet. 

In joining old work to new special pains must be taken to 
secure a good bond. 



39. What is concrete; of what composed, and in what proportion 
should its ingredients be mixed? 

Concrete is artificial stone made by mixing sand, cement and 
broken stone or gravel with sufiicient .water to make the mass 
plastic. 

The proportions of the ingredients to be used depend upon the 
character of the work and the nature of the ingredients themselves. 



50 



The usual proportions are — 

1 cement, 2 sand, 3 stone. 

1 cement, 2 sand, 5 stone. 

1 cement, 3 sand, 5 stone. 

1 cement, 3 sand, 6 stone. 



40. (a) Upon what does the imperviousness of concrete to the 
passage of water depend? (h) Describe clearly and fully the method 
you would use to determine the best proportion of the several in- 
gredients in order to make water-tight concrete? 

(a) The imperviousness of concrete depends upon — 

1. Character and proportion of the cement, sand, and stone, 
and the amount of water used. 

2. Upon the thoroughness of the mixing. 

3. Upon the care in laying and compacting. 

(h) Provide a measure of known capacity, fill it with the sand 
to be used and then add water to the point of overflowing, noting the 
quantity, thus determining the per cent, of voids in the sand. In 
the same way determine the per cent, of voids in the stone. Now 
by starting with a barrel of cement as a unit, the quantity of sand 
M^hich can be used for the mortar is determined from the known 
per cent, of voids: thus if the sand has 40% voids, 2 J barrels of 
sand may be used, giving 2^ barrels of mortar. The amount of 
stone can then be determined in the same way, thus if the voids 
in the stone are 50% there will be required 5 barrels of stone for 
each 24 barrels of mortar, the whole making 5 barrels of concrete. 
The proportion will then be 1 volume of cement, 2^ volumes of sand 
and 5 volumes of stone, and for other percentages of voids will vary 
accordingly. Practically a little more cement than necessary to fill 
the voids should be added in mixing the mortar. Enough water 
should be used to make the mass plastic. 



41. Describe method of making and laying concrete, stating 
what tests of cement should be made, how to select or secure good 
sand and stone, size of latter, the proportion of each with Rosendale 
or Portland cement and the manipulation of materials so as to 
secure good results. 

Concrete is made by thoroughly mixing cement, sand and broken 
stone or gravel with a proper quantity of' water. 

The cement should be first class in quality, tested for fineness, 
soundness, specific gravity, setting, strength. The sand must be 



60 

clean, free from loam, and sharp. The stone must be clean, of vary- 
ing sizes, but not too large (1 to 3 in.). The proportions may be — 

I 1:2:3 
I 1:2:5 

With Portland cement ^ 1 :2 :6 

I 1:3:5 " 
I 1:3:6 

( 1:2:3 

With Rosendale cement -.- 1 :2 :5 

( 1:3:6 

The ingredients may be mixed by hand or by mechanical mixers 
in a variety of ways, but in all cases the important thing to be ob- 
served is that they are thoroughly incorporated in the mixture, 
which must be of proper consistency. 

When mixed by hand, the cement and sand are first mixed 
dry on a platform, the water added, the resulting mortar spread out 
and covered by the stone in a uniform layer. The entire mass is then 
thrown with shovels, the water added until the desired consistency 
and uniformity are obtained. Measuring boxes should be provided 
for each ingredient and the specified proportions used. In depositing 
the concrete no opportunity should be given for the materials to 
separate or the water to drain off and carry the cement along. It 
should be deposited in irregular layers and compacted by ramming. 



42. State briefly the important points regarding mixing (by 
machine) and placing heavy concrete masonry. 

In mixing concrete by machinery the important points to be 
observed are — 

1. That the specified proportions of the ingredients are fed into 
the mixer at all times. 

2. That the quantity of water is uniform and of proper amount 
to produce the desired consistency. 

3. That the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated before leav- 
ing the mixer. 

4. That the entire contents of the mixer are taken out at each 
emptying. 

5. AYlien the mixer is stopped it should be flushed with water 
and no concrete partially set or otherwise should be permitted to 
remain in it. 

6. The mixer should be located as near the work as possible. 

7. The concrete should have a low fall when leaving the mixer, 
not giving the ingredients an opportunity to separate. 



61 

8. If transported the concrete must be carried in water-tight 
cars or barrows. 

9. As soon as placed the concrete should be well compacted, all 
corners being thoroughly filled. 

10. The forms must be firm, unyielding, have the closest possible 
joints and smoothed on the inside. 

11. A richer concrete should be deposited near all exposed 
surfaces. 

12. The work should be supervised by a competent inspector. 



43. How many cubic yards of broken stone, sand and Portland 
cement will it take to make 100 yards of concrete, 

3-in. broken stone having 50% voids. 
2-in. broken stone having 40% voids. 

The 2-in. stone will fill the voids of the 3-in. stone; the sand 
will fill the voids of the 2-in. stone; the cement will fill the voids 
of the sand; and 10 bbls. cement will make 1 cu. yd. What is the 
percentage of this mixture? 

Assume that the sand has 40 per cent, voids. 

10 bbls. of cement will fill the voids in 25 bbls. of sand. 

25 bbls. of sand will fill the voids in 62| bbls. 2-in. stone (40%' 
voids). 

62^ bbls. of 2-in. stone will fill the voids in 125 bbls. 3-in. stone 
(50% voids). 

For each cu. yd. of cement there will thus be required: 

10 bbls. cement = 1 volume = 1 cu. yd. 

25 bbls. sand = 2.5 volumes — 2^ cu. yd. 
62i bbls. 2-in. stone [ _ -,^.3 _ i 6^ cu. yd. 

125 bbls. 3-in. stone )~ ^ ~ (121 " 

The resulting mixture will be 12J cu. yd. concrete. 

For 100 cu. yd. concrete there will be required: 

8 X 1 = 8 cu. yd. cement. 

8 X 2| = 20 " sand. 

8 X 6^ = 50 " 2-in. stone. 

8 X 12^ = 100 " 3-in. " 

The percentage of the mixture is 1 : 2| : 18f . 

44. What is rubble concrete and when is it used? 

Rubble concrete is a mass of concrete in which are embedded 
blocks of rubble. It is used for large retaining walls, dams and 
foundations to save concrete and therefore decrease cost of the 
structure. 



62 

45. How would you proceed to determine the safe loads to apply 
upon piles in a given locality as calculated by the penetration, etc. 
In what way do piles act to uphold loads? 

To determine the safe load, drive several test piles and record 
carefully the penetration at each blow of the hammer. When the 
penetration has become sufficiently small, so that the pile is near 
refusal, average the penetration of the last few blows and apply the 
Engixeerixg News formula — 

L = Safe load that may be put on the pile (in lbs.). 

IV = weight of hammer in lbs. 

Ji = height of fall in feet. 

s = average set of last blows in inches. 

Piles uphold loads by means of frictional resistance along their 
surface, also by acting as long columns supported at their lower 
end and carrying the load on top. 



46. (a) What is the theoretical method of determining the safe 
hearing power of piles? (&) What modifications under different 
conditions? (c) Give practical method of determining the bearing 
power of piles. 

(a) For the theoretical method see question No. 45. 

(h) When the pile is driven to refusal in good material, the point 
resting on a hard stratum, the pile acts also as a long column and 
the safe load is accordingly increased. 

When driven to refusal in soft mud, the bottom resting on a 
hard stratum, rendering the surface friction very small, the safe 
load should be computed by the column formula only, the friction 
heing neglected. 

The column is considered as having one pin and one fixed end 
and of a length equal to the exposed portion of the pile. 

(c) To test the bearing power practically, drive piles to the 
required depth, upon them construct a platform and load the plat- 
form until the piles sink to refusal or until the desired penetration 
is reached. These observations will give the maximum bearing 
power directly, and by introducing a proper safety factor the safe 
load is obtained. 



47. What is the safe load for a well-driven pile? 
About 25 tons. , 



48. Describe briefly the several methods of sinking wooden 
piles and the conditions under which each would be used? 

Wooden piles may be sunk: 

1. By the ordinary pile-driver. An iron hammer weighing one to 
four thousand pounds is raised by machinery and permitted to fall 
upon the head of the pile. Used under almost all conditions. 

2. By the steam hammer. In this case the hammer is operated 
by steam, the blows being light and rapid. Adapted especially in 
quicksands and soft soils. 

3. By the water jet. An iron pipe is fastened to the side of the 
pile and lowered with it, the lower end of the pipe being near the 
point of the pile. Water is forced into the pipe causing a softening 
and loosening of the material below the point of the pile. The pile 
is forced into the material by the weight of the hammer resting upon 
it and by blows when necessary. 

4. Piles may also be driven by utilizing the explosive force of 
gunpowder or dynamite, suitable apparatus being provided. 



49. In driving piles through quicksand, which is the most effec- 
tive method, a succession of quick, light blows or of slow, heavy 
ones? Give your reasons. 

Quick, light blows are the most effective. The quicksand runs 
freely and exerts upward pressure on the pile, which tends to force 
it up. Quick, light blows will prevent this, and also prevent the 
sand from settling about the pile and thus increase the resistance 
to driving. 



50. What is the best method of preserving piles in sea-water ? 
In ground ? 

In sea water piles are best preserved by the creosoting process. 

In the ground impregnation with creosote or with chloride of 
zinc are considered the best methods. 

When piles are exposed to tide water they should be driven 
Avith the bark on, spruce or hemlock being commonly used. Where 
the teredo is active, the palmetto wood of Florida gives good results. 

In firm soils, pines, oaks, elms or firs are used, the bark being 
removed. 



51. Describe the various ways of shaping and using sheet piling 
to keep water from work in progress. 



64 ; 

The sheet piles may be — 

1. TongTied and grooved. 

2. Overlapping. 

3. Grooved only, with tongues driven in the grooves. 
The ends of piles should be sharpened for driving. 

Two rows of guide piles are first driven about 10 ft. apart. A 
pair of waling pieces are then fastened to the guide piles near their 
top leaving a space between waling pieces equal to thickness of the 
sheet piles. The sheet piles should be driven between the wales, 
starting at each guide pile working towards the center, the center 
pile forming a wedg-e to tighten the row. The point of the pile 
should be so sharpened that in being driven it will bear against 
the adjacent pile. 

52. Bulk in place being assumed at 100, what would be the 
percentage in embankment for: loam, dry; loam, wet; loam, rolled; 
soft clay; stiff clay; sand; gravel? 

The shrinkage in the embankments are — 

For Loam, dry 12% 

Loam, wet 10% 

Loam, rolled 15% 

Clay, soft 8% 

Clay, stiff •. . . . 10% 

Sand 9% 

Gravel . . : 8% 

53. How would you prepare the foundation for a heavy wall and 
how deep should it be excavated? 

The foundation for a heavy wall should be excavated about 
3 ft. and more if required by the character of the material or by 
the unit pressure on the foundation. 

After excavation, the foundation should be freed from all foreign 
and decayed matter, the hollows and poor portions being replaced by 
good, firm soil or concrete. The bottom must be thoroughly wetted 
and compacted before the masonry is started. The trenches should 
be kept dry by pumping if necessary and any springs or fissures 
plugged up. If rock is encountered in the foundation it should be 
stripped of loose or decayed portions and benched or stepped, if too 
smooth. 



54. Does the quality of cement, particularly Portland cement 
for hydraulic work, depend in any way upon its storage? (a) If 
so, state how it is affected by storage, (b) State what may be the 



65 

after effect upon a structure of lack of care in this respect, (c) 
Describe the proper storage of cement. 

Yes. 

a. Fresh cement has a certain amount of free lime which is 
removed by exposure to the air; fresh cement not having time to 
cool "swells" or blows." 

h. Lack of care in this respect causes swelling of lime and subse- 
quent disintegration of the masonry, thus endangering the structure. 

c. Cement should be stored in a dry enclosure, upon a platform 
raised a few inches above ground. It should be protected from rain 
or moisture by suitable covering. 



% 55. Plow are walls founded on soft or yielding materials ? 

The material is excavated for two or more feet and piles driven 
to firm bearing, These piles are cut off at the same elevation, 
capped and a foundation bed of concrete deposited in the excava- 
tion around the pile heads or upon a platform erected on the piles. 
Upon this concrete the wall is built. 

If the depth of the soft material is not very great the trench 
for the wall may be excavated to a hard stratum, and the excavation 
refilled with concrete to form the foundation bed. 

The area of the foundation bed may be increased by grillage 
construction so that even in somewhat yielding material the unit 
foundation pressures may be made sufficiently low to give a stable 
wall. 




56. In building a large sewer or portion of the aqueduct where 
quicksand is encountered, how would you proceed to get sound 
work? Under what conditions does quicksand of itself mai^e a 
good foundation? 

(a) In excavating for the foundation the width of the trench 
should be 2 to 4 ft. more than is required for the masonry. The 
sides should be very strongly braced by sheeting. Double wall lin- 



66 

ings should be used and provided with a cutting edge at the bottom, 
strongly braced between walls and filled with clay and sand. The 
excavation should proceed under the cutting edge, leaving a core 
at the center which is gradually removed with the sinking of the 
lining until a good foundation is secured. The excavation can be 
facilitated by forcing cement grout into the quicksand, solidifying 
the mass, or freezing the mass by the usual freezing process. Wheu 
the proper depth is reached piles may be driven with butt end down 
into the underlying strata to solid bearing and the sewer built on 
the piles in the usual manner. 

(h) When quicksand is so confined and drained so as to prevent 
flowing or displacement of same, it will make a safe foundation. 

67. Discuss briefly the methods of handling quicksand in con- 
structive work. 

The methods commonly used to handle quicksand are : 

1. By sheeting and bracing. The excavation should be made 
several feet wider than necessary to permit heavy sheeting to be 
put in. Above the quicksand the sheeting may be of the 
ordinary type, but heavy and firm. The sides of the excavation 
through the quicksand strata should be protected by double wall 
sheeting — constructed of two layers of timber filled with clay and 
provided with a cutting edge at the bottom to facilitate sinking. 
As the lining is sunk the core is excavated. (See previous question.) 

2. By solidifying the quicksand with grout or cement. 
Pipes are sunk into the strata and grout or cement powder forced 
down under pressure, forming a mortar or concrete with the quick- 
sand. By regulating the depths of the pipe any required mass can 
be solidified. 

3. By the freezing process. A series of pipes 10 inches in 
diameter are sunk in a circle through the stratum of earth. Eight- 
inch pipes, closed at the bottom, are sunk inside the 10-in., and 
smaller pipes open at bottom are placed in the 8-in. pipes. A 
freezing mixture is then forced through one set of pipes, return- 
ning by the other, thus solidifying the surrounding mass of earth, 
which can then be removed in the usual way. 

68. Where a street or railway in embankment crosses a stagnant 
pond the bottom of which is soft material, state what method you 
would pursue in making an earth fill across the same to obtain a 
permanent embankment. 

Upon the bottom, over the embankment area, and for some dis- 
tance outside, facines made of strong twig^ and branches should be 
deposited. The twigs should be formed into bundles 6 to 12 ft. long 



67 

and 1 to 2 ft. thick, firmly bound together and made into mattresses. 
The bundles should cross one another to secure a homogeneous mass. 

The mattresses are sunk by loading them with stone and the 
embankment material. The embankment should be built up suffi- 
ciently above the grade so that when settlement occurs the surface 
will be at or near the grade. 

By means of the mattresses the weight of the embankment is 
distributed uniformly over a large foundation area, bringing the 
unit pressures within safe limits. 



59. Describe clearly the usual method of tunneling in sound rock, 
where timbering is not required. 

(&) How may the progress and cost of the tunnel be affected 
by carelessness of the contractor in blasting and otherwise? 

(a) After the shaft has been sunk to subgrade, a heading about 
C ft. square is driven near the crown of the arch of the tunnel 
section. The drill holes are driven about 9 ft. in, and converging, 
so that the blast will remove a conical-shaped mass of rock. The 
sides are then taken out to the given lines. 

Following this, holes are drilled in the shelf or bench thus 
formed, the heading meanwhile being carried forward. Care should 
be taken in blasting that the sides and top outside of the tunnel 
lines are not disturbed, and that adjoining property is not en- 
dangered. Loose or disintegrated rock outside of tunnel lines 
should be removed. After each blast the rock or spoil is removed 
to the surface. Water-bearing seams should be drained or grouted, 
and the tunnel kept dry by drainage and pumping. 

(7;) The contractor can delay the work by poor arrangement of 
drill holes, by using excessive charges, ty not removing material 
systematically, by poor drainage, incompetent supervision, insuffi- 
cient shoring and protective measures, carelessness in handling and 
storing explosives, &c. 



60. How would you determine the size of a culvert to use? 

The area of water-way may be determined — 

1. By a careful examination and study of all openings under 
roads crossing the same stream. 

2. By measuring the quantity of water flowing down the stream 
during heavy freshets. 

3. By observing and studying the high- water lines as shown by 
the drift. 



68 

4. By computing the quantity of water reaching the culvert 
after a study of the character and extent of the drainage area, 
rainfall, etc. 

Q =. c y ^S~AK 

Q = cu. ft. per sec. reaching culvert. 
y ^= rate of rainfall, in inches per hour. 
A = drainage area, in acres. 

5. Myer's formula — 



Area in Square Feet =-^ c y/Dvainage Area, in Acres. 
c is taken about 1 for rolling, open country. 

1.5 for hilly ground. 

4 for steep, rocky ground. 

61. How would you guard against a wash-out? 

A well or sump should be constructed at the entrance to the cul- 
vert, to receive heavy debris brought down during freshets. This 
sump, as well as the floor of the culvert, should be well paved. The 
capacity of the culvert should be sufficient to carry the water dur- 
ing the heaviest storms. Where the water is liable to back up, 
the embankment slope should be riprapped to prevent wash. 

62. In the testing of elastic material, such as iron, what is the 
meaning of the term limit of elasticity, and about what proportion 
does the strength at that point bear to the total strength ? 

The limit of elasticity is that point up to which the ratio be- 
tween the stress and corresponding strain is constant, and beyond 
which any additional load will cause permanent deformation, or 
it is the smallest load that will produce a permanent deformation. 

The elastic limit is about one-half the ultimate strength. 

63. What do you understand by limit of elasticity as applied to a 
beam under strain or pressure; what is meant by the neutral axis 
of a beam? 

The limit of elasticity of a beam is the smallest unit stress 
that will produce a permanent deflection. 

The neutral axis of the beam is the line along which there is 
no bending moment or strain. 

64. For what parts of a structure may cast and wrought iron be 
used in reference to tension and compression? 

Cast iron should be used in those members which are in com- 
pression and not subject to impact and heavy vibration. In these 



cases and in all members subject to tensile stresses wrought iron 
should be used. 



65. What are the ultimate and working strengths of a good 
quality of wrought iron per square inch? 

Ultimate strength in tension = 30 000 to 70 000 lb. per sq. in. 

" " compression == 40 000 to 120 000 lb. per sq. in. 

" " shearing = 40 000 to 60 000 lb. per sq. in. 

Working stresses: 

Tension 10 000—15 000 lb. per sq. in. 

Compression 30 000—40 000 lb. per sq. in. 

Shearing 6 000— 9 000 lb. per sq. in. 



66. With the load uniformly distributed, what fractional part 
of the whole weight may be considered, in all calculations, as 
being carried at the center? 

One-half the load is considered as carried at the center. 



67. Suppose a uniformly loaded beam supported at both ends, 
and take w = unit weight, I = length of beam, h = breadth, d 
= depth, s = extreme fibre stress. Express algebraically the value 
of s in terms of the other quantities, and show how you obtain 
it. 

7- 

The moment of the load at the centre = = the resisting mo- 

ment of the beam = s :r-, = s X j^b d^. 

wf s 2 \ ^ ^^ 

-^ = -bd,ovs = i^, 

WVYWWWWWWWWW 



68. What proportion of the breaking weight of a beam would 
you consider a safe load? 

For iron beams about Kh. 
For wooden beams about to- 



70 

69. Sectional area being 36 sq. in. which would be the stronger 
section, 6x6 or 4x9? 

The strength of a beam increases with the square of the depth, 
but only with the first power of the width. 

The 4x9 beam will, therefore, be the stronger, the strength 
compared to the 6x6 being 

as 4 X 92 : 6 X 62, or as 3 : 2. 

70. Describe what is meant by "shear" in computing bridge 
stresses and state in general how it is obtained. 

The shear at any section is the algebraic sum of all the forces 
on one side of the section; it is the total force tending to move 
one portion of the member past the other at the section in ques- 
tion. 

It is obtained by taking the algebraic sum of all the external 
vertical forces acting on either side of the section, including the 
reaction. 

Y 71. What is the angle of repose as applied to earth, and what 
relation does it bear to the angle of maximum pressure? 

It is the angle with the horizontal made by the freely sloping 
surface of a mass of earth. 

The angle of maximum pressure is taken to bisect the angle 
made by a vertical plane and the plane of repose of the earth 
backing, i. e. it is equal to i (90° — angle of repose). 

72. At what point above the base of a retaining wall will the 
center of pressure from earth behind it be located, when the earth 
is level with the wall? 

The center of pressure is at a distance above the base equal 
to one-third the height of the wall. 



73. What are the conditions of the stability of a retaining wall? 

Theoretical conditions : 

1. The unit pressure on the foundation bed must not exceed 
the safe bearing power of the underlying material. 

2. The unit pressure on any portion of the masonry must be 
within safe limits. 

3. To insure stability of the wall against sliding on its base 
or along any horizontal line — the weight of the wall above the 
line multiplied by the coefficient of masonry friction must ex- 



71 

ceed the horizontal pressure at that point, produced by the back- 
ing. 

4. To insure stability against overturning about the toe, the 
moment of resistance about the toe of the wall due to its weight 
should exceed the overturning moment due to the backing. This 
condition will be satisfied if the line of resultant pressure falls 
within the middle third of the base. 

5. The foundation should be constructed, the backing properly 
laid and drained so that the conditions and data considered in 
{he design will not materially change after the wall has been con- 
structed. 



74. In what ways do retaining walls fail? 



Retaining walls may fail: 

1. By excessive or unequal settlement of the foundation. 

2. By disintegration of the masonry, caused by its poor quality 
or bond, or excessive unit pressures. 

3. Heaving of the wall due to frost caused by improper drain- 
age of backing. 

4. By "bulging" or sliding along the base or some horizontal 
line, owing to the excessive horizontal thrust of the backing. 

5. By overturning about the toe owing to the insufficient weight 
of the wall or thickness of the base. 



75. In case of retaining wall, at what angle will the earth 
sustain rupture, in case of the movement of the wall? 

The earth will first rupture along the plane of maximum 
thrust and eventually along plane of natural slope. 



76. What precautions should be taken in building a retaining 
wall? 

The excavation should be carried down to a satisfactory founda- 
tion bed. 

The bottom should be freed from all perishable matter, which 
should be replaced by firm soil or sand, watered and rolled. 

The heaviest courses should be laid at the bottom. 

The masonry should be well laid and securely bonded horizontally 
and vertically, frequent headers being used and spawls avoided 
as much as possible. 

Drainage should be provided for by means of weep holes or 
drains laid along the heel of the wall. A layer of gravel should 
be placed adjacent to the wall to drain the backing. 



Y2 

In depositing the backing the earth thrust will be decreased 
with the increase of compactness of the material. 

The bed joints of the masonry in the interior of the wall 
should if feasible incline normal to the direction of the resultant 
thrust. 



77. Without increasing the dimensions of a retaining wall, what 
precautions, in filling behind it, will increase its safety? 

The thrust of the backing will be decreased and the safety 
of the wall increased by depositing the backing in thin compact 
horizontal layers watered and rolled. 

A layer of gravel or loose material laid adjacent to the back 
of the wall will facilitate drainage of the backing and minimize the 
effect of frost. 



78. In designing a retaining wall for a street where it crosses 
a valley by an embankment, how would you proceed to determine 
its dimensions? Show by diagTam the position and direction of 
the resultants of the force acting in a well-designed retaining 
wall. 

The grade at which the street is to cross the valley is usually 
known, and the surface elevations along the line of the wall 
are given by the surveys. The difference between the street gTades 
and the original surface elevation gives the depths of the wall at 
various points along the line. The top width of the wall is as- 
sumed from 3 to 6 feet, according to the depth. With good 
masonry, the thickness at the base can then be made | to J of 
the height, and the wall carried down to a good foundation. The 
face of the wall is battered and the back stepped off to make a 
good bond with the backing. With the assumed dimensions the the- 
oretical conditions of stability can be investigated by the usual 
force diagram and the thickness increased or decreased, as economy 
and practical considerations dictate. 

In computing the thrust the moving load, on the street within 
the range of the prism of maximum thrust, should be taken into 
account. 



79. Outline the principal steps required in the theoretical design 
of a retaining wall. 

1. The height of the wall is usually given by the conditions 
of the problem. 



73 

2. Assume a trial thickness on top equal to about i of the 
height and about 0.4 the height of the bottom; give the face of 
the wall a batter, and assume the back vertical. 

3. Plot the wall to scale, using the trial dimensions. 

4. Draw the lines of the earth slope and line of maximum 
thrust. 

5. Compute the weight of the maximum earth prism, earth 
weighing 110 lb. per cu. ft. and the thrust which equals about 
0.64 of this weight. 

6. Compute the weight of the wall, assuming a unit weight of 
150 lb. and the position of its center of gravity. 

7. Draw the line of thrust to scale, making an angle with the 
normal to the back of the wall equal to the angle of repose 
and passing through the center of pressure. 

8. Draw the line representing the weight of the wall to same 
scale, passing through the center of gravity. 

9. Combine these forces and plot their resultant to insure 
that there is no tension in the joints at the back of the wall, 
this line of pressure should fall within the middle third of the 
base. 

10. Compute the resisting moments of the weight of the wall 
and the overturning moment of the thrust, taken about the toe. 

The resisting moment should be larger by four or five times 
the overturning moment. 

11. Compute the horizontal component of the thrust at the 
base and at some distance above it, and also the frictional re- 
sistance to sliding at these points. The latter should be three or 
four times as great as 'the former. 

12. If these conditions are not satisfied by the assumed di- 
mensions, increase or decrease the latter, as may be required 
for safety or economy. 




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^ 



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Prism of ^'/:^k 
Maximum $/^^^ 






I ! ^1 . ^ - -Ttr^ \ Normal fo Wall 



'riK^^i^i^2k^:^^^M^ --^V<.Ancrle of Repose^ 
Zl./^.-|L_.">7 33^1' -for Barih 



mA-^^ 



w 



74 



80. What should be the thickness at the top and base of re- 
taining wall 15 ft. high, built to retain ordinary earth? Show a 
sketch of the wall, and how it should be founded. 



QDrain- 




*^{30 or more 
Aolepencdng' ^ 
Aon FoundcfHor? 



81. What is the condition of arch sliding at the springing line 
and in what form of arch is this most likely to occur? 

The arch will slide when the component of the pressure on 
the springing line parallel to the joint at that point is greater 
than the friction between the two surfaces of the joint. 

This is most liable to occur in flat or segmental arches. 



82. Outline the steps taken to find the thickness of an arch 
of stone, span and rise being given? 

1. Obtain a trial depth of keystone 'by Trautwine's formula. 

Where t = thickness at the crown, in feet. 
s = span of arch, in feet. 
r = rise of arch, in feet. 

2. Plot the arch to scale, using the given and assumed di- 
mensions. 

3. Calculate from given data the loading on the arch and find 
the horizontal thrust at the crown. 



75 

4. Divide the arch ring and material above it into sections 
by vertical planes. 

5. Compute the position of the center of gravity for each sec- 
tion, 

6. Compute the load supported at each section, reducing various 
classes of loading to equivalents having a common weight. 

7. Find, graphically, the position of the resultant of the thrust 
at the crown, and the weight of the arch and spandrel, etc., 
of the adjacent section. 

8. Combine the resultant ihus formed with the weights of the 
next section. 

9. Continue until the position of the resultant pressure is de- 
termined for each section, giving the line of pressure for the en- 
tire ring. 

10. To insure stability the line must fall within the middle 
third of any section of the arch ring. 

If the line falls outside of this, the assumed trial depth must 
be increased. 

If, however, it follows very closely the center line of the arch, 
the thickness may be decreased for economj^ 

11. The unit pressure on the masonry of the arch ring should 
also be computed to insure that it does not exceed proper work- 
ing limits. 

12. New positions of the resultant should be found for the 
new thickness determined upon until the most economical section 
consitent with safety is found. 



83. (a) How would you design the base of abutment of an 
arch ? 

(h) Suppose abutment to be built on compressible ground, give 
sketch of foundation you would use, and give reasons for each 
step. 

1. Find the thickness of the abutment at the spring line 
tentatively by Trautwine's formula: 

it = thickness, in feet. 
t = I r -\- ro s -f 2 ft. -< ?• = rise of arch. 
( s = span, in feet. 

2. Give the outer slope of the abutment a batter equal to Ti- 
the span and make the inner face vertical. 

3. Carry the batter down to the foundation, compute the bot- 
tom width and calculate the unit pressure of the foundation 
bed. This should be within safe limits — if the bearing power 
is small, a grillage of steel and concrete or concrete alone may 
be used to obtain a sufficient area to bring the pressures within 



76 



limits — if the amount of excavation and masonry required be- 
comes excessive, piles may be used to support the abutment. 

4. The position of the line of pressure in the abutment should 
fall within the middle third of any horizontal section. 

This position at the springing can be determined graphically 
by combining the resultant thrust of the arch with the weight 
-of the abutment above it, and for any horizontal section below 
the springing, combine the resultant already found with the weight 
of the additional portion of the abutment to that point. 



84. What is a flush tank, and state its uses? 

A flush tank is a device for periodically flushing a sewer by 
automatically and rapidly discharging a large quantity of water 
into it. It is usually placed at dead ends of sewers, where material 
"is apt to collect. 

It is an essential feature of the separate system in which no 
storm water is permitted to reach the sewers. The water for oper- 
.ating the tank is supplied by the regular mains. 

85. What is the best bond for brick sewers? 

The best bond is the rowlock bond, which consists of concentric 
rings, each longitudinal course breaks joints with the adjacent 
courses and with the rings above and below. All bricks are laid as 
stretchers. 



86. Sketch a concrete retaining wall reinforced by steel. 
See page 77. 



87. Describe clearly the method you would pursue to arrive at 
i;he proper number and spacing of the r-ivets in the flanges of a 
plate girder. 



77 






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78 

B\ = flange stress at B. 
Let F^ = flange stress at A. 

h = smallest bearing value of 1 rivet. 

5 = smallest shearing value of 1 rivet. 

n = number of rivets required in each flange between 
A and B. 
Then 



If s is smaller than b, we have 

F,-F , 

n = — 

s 

To get the flange stress at any point, divide the bending mo- 
ment at that point by the effective depth of the girder. 

^ 88. Given a roof truss with rise equal to one-third of span, 
span equal to 50 ft., trusses 16 ft. apart, total load over the whole 
surface 30 lb. per sq. ft. of horizontal projection. Design the 
truss. 

Assume outline of truss, as shown.^ 

Total load on truss = 16 X 50 X 30 = 24 000 lb. 

Panel load = ^i^ = 3 000 lb. 
♦ Draw stress diagram as shown; it is not necessary to com- 
plete the whole diagram for symmetrical trusses with uniform ver- 
tical loading. The hanger EE is not a member of the truss, and 
therefore does not appear in the stress diagram. 

Allow 800 lb. per sq. in. in compression on yellow pine timber. 

Allow 1 200 lb. per sq. in. in tension on yellow pine timber. 

Allow 12 000 lb. per sq. in. in tension on wrought iron. 

18 900 
jl^^ — --— = 23.6 sq. in. required. Use 1-6-in. x 6-in yellow 
800 

pi lie timber for whole length of rafter. This allows for cutting. 

^ 0, = 13.1 sq. in. required. Use 4-in. x 6-in. yellow 

pine for whole bottom chord, in tw^ lengths, spliced near center. 

/C/ = 6.3 sq. in. required. 2 in. x 3 in. would do; 4 in. 

800 

X 6 in. is better, making — = 42. 

j^ ^1 "oTvin ~ ^'^^ ^^* ^^' I'^^^ii'^d. Use 1-in. round rod with 



ends upset 
HI, I 
with ends upset, 



H I, - = 0.25 sq. in. required. Use f -in. round rods 

' 12 000 



79 




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dPane/sa>e3=^500 >\ . 



•*■ - Tension 

- = Compression 




F G, 



1 600 



12 000 
ends upset. 



0.13 sq. in. required. Use i-in. round rods, with 



89. Discuss the use of the reinforced concrete and explain the 
design of a reinforced concrete girder? 

The resistance offered by plain concrete to tensile and shear- 
ing stresses is so small and unreliable as to practically prohibit 
its use, with economy and safety, in structures subjected to the 
stresses mentioned. The discovery that concrete may be reinforced 
with metal so as to largely increase the resistance to tensile and 
shearing stresses has entirely overcome the serious objection men- 
tioned and greatly extended the scope of application. Introduc- 
ing the metal converts a practically inelastic body into one pos- 
sessing elasticity in addition to durability, increasing strength with 
age, rust-proof and fire-resisting qualities, susceptibility to rapid 
find economical execution, pliability to various forms, and also 



80 



innumerable aesthetic possibilities. The sections shown represent a 
plain concrete beam and one reinforced with 1% of metal. 




The fundamental principle of design may be stated as follows: 
In any structural member, mortar or concrete, reinforced by metal, 
is capable of sustaining very much greater elongations than when 
not reinforced and still effectually contribute to the resistance of 
the member. 

Concrete and steel have the same coefficient of expansion; there 
is thus no tendency of the material to separate with change of 
temperature. 

The adhesion of concrete to steel is found to exceed 500 lb. 
per sq. in. 

Hyatt and Johnson formulae. 

Assumptions : 

1. Sections plane before bending remain plane surfaces, there- 
fore, the distortion of any fibre is proportional to its distance from 
the neutral axis. 

2. The applied forces are perpendicular to the neutral surface. 

3. The values of the moduli of elasticity obtained in direct 
tension and compression apply to the material under stress in 
beams. 

4. There is no sHpping between the concrete and the metal. 

5. There are no initial stresses in the beam due to contrac- 
tion, etc. 



^—J>-v-l 



hx 



hu 
v:.'_ 



< -o-.-y 




81 

Let li = height of beam in inches, and 
6 = breadth of beam in inches. 

hx =^ distance of compression face from neutral axis. 
hu = distance of compression face from center of gravity 
of metal. 

As 
p = ratio of area of steel to area of concrete =-:j-- 

Ac 

c = compressive stress in extreme fibre of concrete. 
f = tensile stress in steel. 
Es and Ec = moduli of elasticity of steel and of concrete in 
compression respectively. 

X, u and p are ratios. 
Equating the tensile and compressive forces of the cross-sec- 
tion we have : 

§ cx--=pf (1). 

c f 

According to the first assumption -—- \ -^- :: hx : h (u — x) 

Ec Es 

and by substitution equation (1) becomes -- x' = -:^— (u — x) p, from 

o Ec 

which 

8 Es , \WlEs 7 , '6 Es Y <o^ 

Finally, taking moments about the neutral axis, the resisting 
moment is: 

M= b h^ [-,\ cx^ -{-pf{u — x)] (3) 

M ^ % ex (u — |.r) hh'^ if allowable stress in concrete is i 

assumed > ..(4) 

M = pf (u — |-.r) hh- if allowable stress in steel is assumed ) 
hh^ in equation (4) may be replaced by K, "a numerical coefficient 

rp 

depending for a given u and ~ simply on the steel percentage and 

E^ 

can be taken from a table." If u be assumed as unity, remember- 
ing that the value of h resulting from this assumption is the dis- 
tance from the top of the beam to the center of gravity of the 
reinforcement, and that the actual deph of the beam is obtained 
by adding a sufficient thickness of concrete below the metal for 
its complete protection. 

Working formulae : 

2 

3 c .r = i?/ (5) 

^--^f^-JiFO^I^ <«> 

Ms:=Kbh'' (7) 

Where K='^ ex (l — ^ x^ or pf (^1 — ^^ x J , depending 



82 

upon wliether the allowable unit stress for concrete or steel is as- 
sumed. The relation of the two is determined from equation (5) and 
neither must be exceeded. 

The constants to be assumed are p, -^, c or f; p is optional and 

the remainder depend upon the nature of the materials. 

In the design of unreinforced masonry structures (arches, re- 
taining walls, dams, etc., no tension is permitted to develop in 
the joints. When these structures are reinforced this condition 
is not necessary and their sections can therefore be reduced. The 
line of pressure may fall outside of the middle third and yet the 
•structure be theoretically stable. 

90. Give the usual form for an intermediate monthly estimate. 
(See p. 83.) 

AQUEDUCT COMMISSION AXD WATER SUPPLY. 

91. Describe in a general way the water supply system of the 
J3orough of Manhattan, Bronx and Brooklyn, giving, as far as 
you know them, the character, area of watershed and description 
of reservoir. 

The Borough of Manhattan receives its supply from the water- 
shed of the Croton Biver, having an area of 360+ sq. miles. 

The water is impounded in a number of reservoirs, the prin- 
cipal dams being the ]^ew and Old Croton Dams, Titicus, Amawalk, 
■Sodom, Bog Brook and Carmel. 

Two Aqueducts (the old and the new) of a combined carry- 
ing capacity of about 400 million gallons daily, having inlets at 
Croton Lake, deliver most of the water to the distributing res- 
ervoirs at Central Park, a portion being diverted at One Hun- 
dred and Thirty-fifth Street gate house for distribution. The 
old aqueduct is about 38 miles long, 53+ sq. ft. in section and 
at Ninety-second Street changes to three 48-in. pipes to reservoirs. 
The new aqueduct is masonry, 155+ sq. ft. section, to the Har- 
lem Biver crossing, which is a steel siphon, and at One Hundred and 
Thirty-fifth Street changes to eight IS-in-. pipes, four leading to Cen- 
tral Park Reservoir and four connecting with city mains. Water 
is pumped from the distributing reservoir for low and high ser- 
•vice. In addition to the Croton, the watershed of the Bronx and 
]Byram Rivers is used, having an area of 22 sq. miles. Collecting 
the water at the Kensico Reservoir and delivering the water to 
the Williamsbridge Reservoir by means of a 48-in. pipe for dis- 
tribution to the Bronx. 

The new reservoir at Jerome Park will give an additional 
storage of 7 billion gallons. The entire storage system available 



83 



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84 



for Manhattan and Bronx will then be in the neighborhood of 
75 billion gallons. 

Brooklyn derives its supply from underground sources. A large 
number of driven wells are connected to pumping stations and 
the water is delivered to conduits which conduct it to distributing 
reservoirs at Ridgewood (capacity 400 million gallons) and Pros- 
pect Park (capacity 20 million gallons). There is also a storage 
reservoir at Hempstead having a capacity of 1 billion gallons. 
Pumping stations are located at the driven-well areas, such as 
Spring Creek. 



92. Name the watersheds available for supply of the City of 
New York, and state briefly the advantages and disadvantages of 
each. 



Watersheds or 


2 ^ 

B 1 


Estimated 

daily capacity, 

rrJllion 

gallons. 


Draft on 

drainage area, 

inches per 

annum. 


Storage Provided. 


Remarks. 


sources of supply. 


Million 
gallons. 


Days' 
supply. 


Croton River 

Fishkill River 

Esopus Creek 


360 
81 

255 

180 
116 

149 

160 

228 


280 
60 

280 


16.3 
15.6 

21.4 


75 000 

16 800 

66 500 
20 000 
30 500 

17 200 

14 000 
65 000 


268 
280 

256 


Near the City; water 

fairly good. 
Nearer than the 

Catskills; high; 

water somewhat 

hard. 
Water j-ure and soft. 
Water pure and soft. 
Water fairly hard; 

nearer than Cats- 
kills. 
Water somewhat 

hard; nearer than. 

Catskills. 
Water good. 


Wappinger Creek, 
Roelifif JansenKill. 
Catskill Creek. 


80 
100 


14.5 
14.1 




381 

172 


Schoharie Creek: 






Water good; shed 


Long Island under 
ground water- 
shed 


100 
Unlimited. 






partly in Mass. 

Water very fine. 
Water polluted; re- 


Hudson River 




















quires pumping 
and filtration. 
Water good; too far 


Ten Mile River , 












away. 
Water good; partly 















in Conn. 
Water good; partly 


Walkill River. . 












in Conn. 
Water fair; partly 














in N. Jersey. 



Note.— See Engineering Neics, October 1, 1903, for brief, but concise, description of 
the work of Commission on Additional Water Supply. 



85 




Miles. 
5 10 15 £0 25 

■ ,l,,. , l : \ I 



93. What is the fundamental law or equation upon which the 
flow of water in pipes, conduits, etc., is based, and what modifica- 
tions in it are necessary when applied to particular cases? 



Q = A V = A yy2gK 

A = area of cross-section of pipe, channel, etc., 

V = velocity in feet per second, 

g = 32.16, the acceleration due to gravity, 

h = head of water in feet. 
For orifices, weirs, conduits, etc., this is modified by the intro- 
duction of constants or factors depending upon their size, con- 
dition of surfaces, shape, etc.; the actual velocity and discharge 
always being less than the theoretical. 

The following are the formulas most commonly used: 

For orifices, Q = c A v = c A V' 1 g h, c varying from about .60 to ,9. 
For short pipes (length = 3 diameters), 

q = c A V c = .80± 

3. 

For weirs, Q = c L h'^ c = 3.33. 

For long pipes, Q = A \ ^ ^ I. . , / = 0.02 (trial value). 

For open channels or very long pipes, use the Chezy formula 
Q = c A\/rs; in which c, 

h^ + 41.6 + ^^^ 

?i s 

by Kutter's formula c = 7 noooi \ • 

1+ (41.6 + -il^) _;- 

Notation : 

c constant found by experiment, 

A cross-section area of channel, etc., in square feet, 
L length of crest of weir in feet, 
f friction factor found by experiment, 
I length of pipe in feet, 
s sine of slope of water surface, 
d diameter of pipe in feet, 
r mean hydraulic radius, 
n constant depending on roughness of surface. 

94. State the principle (a) of the pressure of water; (h) of 
the siphon. 

(a) There is no internal friction among the molecules of wa- 
ter. The surface of still water will therefore always be level. 
The pressure of the water is equal in all directions. 



87 



The amount of the pressure at any point depends upon the 
head of water and acts normally to the surface pressed. It is 
equal to the area of the surface times the head of water on its 
center of gravity. 

(h) The siphon acts as follows: 

On the outlet of the siphon there is a pressure of water equal 
to its difference of elevation from that of the inlet. 

On the surface of the water there is an atmospheric pressure 
of 15 lb. to the square inch. 

When a vacuum is formed at the outlet, the unbalanced 
atmospheric pressure at the inlet causes the water to rise into 
and down the siphon and then discharge. 

After the flow has begun the difference in hydrostatic pressure 
between the inlet and outlet keeps the flow continuous u:ntil the 
water level has decended below the inlet. If the flow inta the 
siphon is continuous, the discharge will also be. 




95. What is the center of pressure? How would jou find it for 
a rectangular gate immersed in water? 

The center of pressure is the point at which a single resultant 
force applied to replace a system of forces will produce the same 
effect as the latter. A force opposite in direction and equal in 
amount to the system of forces applied at this point, will hold 
the body in equilibrium. 

If d = distance of center of pressure to hottom of the gate^, 
k^ = head of water on bottom of gate. 



h^ = head of water on top of gate, 



Tl-en d = i (|4^) . If 



ih. 



The total pressure on the gate as equal to its area multiplied 
by the head of water on its center of gravity, times the weight of 
1 cu. ft. of water. 

Or P = Area X 4 (K + ^^2) X '^' 



88 

If h^ = 0, that is, the top of the gate is level with the sur- 
face, 

P = Area X i h- w. 
For a width of 1 ft. of gate area = 1 X /^ and P =z h y( i wh = i 

'96. What do you mean by the grade line of a pipe and its 
hydraulic grade line? What relation should exist between them? 

The grade line of the pipe indicates the rate of rise or fall 
along any portion of the pipe as laid. 

The hydraulic grade line indicates the fall in the pressure 
head along the pipe. It is the line connecting the water level 
in piezometer tubes placed at various points along the pipe. 

The grade line of the pipe should never, if possible, rise above 
its hydraulic grade line, for the pressure of air collecting in the 
summit will diminish the flow. 

97. In a rectangular dam, where is the center of pressure ? Where 
should the line of pressure on an arch fall? 

a. At two-thirds of the depth of water below the surface. 
t. In the middle third of any section of the arch ring. 

98. What is the pressure against the vertical face of a dam for 
a space one foot wide and a depth of one foot below the surface ? 

The pressure against the face = 62.5 X 1 X i = 32.25 lb. 
Intensity of pressure 1 ft. below surface = 62.5 lb. 

99. What is the pressure on a surface, 1 ft. wide, of which 

the top is 3 ft. below the surface ? 

62.5 X 3.5 X 1 = Total pressure = 218.75 lb. 

100. What is the unit pressure per square inch on the side of 
a vessel 10 ft. below surface of water? 

Unit pressure = .434 X 10 ^ 4.34 lb. per sq. in. 

101. The water behind a dam is 25 ft. deep; determine what the 
total pressure will be per foot of length of the dam, and what the 
moment tending to overturn it. 

Pressure per foot of length = -i wli- ^= i- X 62.5 X 25^ = 
19 531.25 lb. 



89 

Moment = * tvh X h h = h wh'- = \ X 62.5 X 25- X (^- X 25) 
= \ X 62.5 X 25" = 16 2760.42 ft-lb. 

102. Given two reservoirs 500 ft. and 2 000 ft. square and filled 
Avith water 20 ft. deep, the banks being 25 ft. high. How much 
heavier and thicker should the wall or bank be in the one case 
than in the other, and why^ 

There should theoretically not be any difference in heaviness or 
thickness, since the thickness is dependent upon the depth of the 
Avater alone and not upon the area of the reservoir. 

103. Suppose a pile near the outer end of a pier to have an aver- 
age diameter of 15 ins., and the depth of water to be 35 ft. What 
would be the total pressure against its surface resulting from a 
tidal current with an average velocity of 4 miles per hour? 

A velocity of 4 miles per hour is equivalent to 

5 '280 X 4 ^ „_ „, 

3 600 -5.87 ft. per sec. 

The static head, equivalent to this velocity, 

2g 64.4 
The equivalent pressure per sq. foot = 62.5 X -54 = 33.75 lb. 
The area of the surface of the pile subjected to pressure = 35 X 
l-l = 43.75 square feet. 

The total pressure is therefore 43.75 X 33.75 = 1 476 ± lb. 



104. (a) Give the different methods of measuring the velocity of 
flow in a stream. 

(h) Where is the maximum velocity in' cross-section of stream? 

(a) 1. By the use of surface or submerged floats, which are im- 
mersed in the stream, the time elapsed while traveling a known dis- 
tance is recorded and the velocity per unit of time computed. 

2. By noting the height to which water will rise in a pitometer 
tube immersed in the stream, thus giving the velocity head. The 
velocity may then be computed from the recorded head (v = \^2gh). 

3. By the use of a current meter. The velocity is given directly 
on a graduated dial. 

(h) The maximum velocity is in the deepest portion of the 
stream, about J below the surface. 

105. Explain in detail the most accurate way of gauging the 
velocity of a stream. 



90 



The velocity of a stream is most accurately gauged by means of 
a current meter. 

Before any work is done the rating of the meter should be ac- 
curately known or determined. (This may be done by suspending 
the meter from a boat in quiet water and noting the index record as 
the boat is propelled at a known velocity.) 

Divide the stream into convenient areas by vertical and hori- 
zontal planes. 

Suspend the meter from an anchored boat or suitable rigging so 
that the vane will be immersed successively in each of the areas, thus 
determining the velocity in each. 

.The mean velocity can then be found by averaging the recorded 
velocities in each section. 



illllll 111 1 1 




106. How would you measure the discharge of a small stream (a) 
on which a tight dam is situated; (h) without a dam? 

(a) If the water overflows the dam, determine the elevation 
of the crest and the head on same. This can be done by meas- 
uring with a hook gauge the elevation of the water surface about 
10 feet back from the crest. 

The condition of the ends of the dam should be observed. 

The discharge may then be calculated by the weir formula, 

q = 3.33 h 7^^' 

or other appropriate form, depending upon conditions. 

If the velocity of approach is considerable it should be taken 
into account by increasing the value of h, by an amount 

h,= J^ (t'a = velocity of approach, ha.^= corresponding head). 



A special weir crest may be constructed on the dam by means of 
dashboards if very careful gauging is desired. 



91 



Plan and Horizontal Sections 




(h) Where there is no dam, a special weir may be constructed 
over the stream and the discharge obtained ; or, the velocity gauged, 
the cross-section measured and the discharge computed by the for- 
mula Q = A V, or the Chezy-Kutter formula (see Q. 93), may 
be used, giving appropriate values to the constants s, n, and r as 
determined by measurements and observations. 



107. Wliat is a hook gauge and how should it be located in mak- 
ing weir measurements? 

A hook gauge is a device for measuring the head of water on 
the crest of a weir. It consists of a graduated rod provided with a 
hook at the bottom; the rod is made to slide vertically in fixed sup- 
ports, the amount of motion being read on a vernier. 

It is operated as follows: The hook is brought to the level of 
the crest and the vernier read; it is then' raised to the water level 
and the vernier read again; the difference in the readings gives the 
head. The hook should be inclosed in a box open at the bottom so 
that the water surrounding it will be calm, and the box located far 
enough back not to be affected by the curve at the crest (at least 
ft). . 



^ 



^mm 



''^ !!|""."^|""l"J"l";;| I ^"I"g ^ N H |i .„|, . ^in, | MHj„n|nnj„„|„n|„n|„^ i 




108. In the construction of a weir for measuring the flow of 
water from any source, state clearly all the requirements in form 
and arrangement that are necessary for the most accurate results. 



92 

1. The back of the weir should be vertical. 

2. The back of the weir should be at right angles to the direction 
of flow. 

3. There should be no end contraction or the end contraction 
should be complete. 

4. The sheet should be prevented from expanding laterally by 
extending the upper portions of the sides a little down stream. 

5. The crest should be in thin plate, the water touching only 
along one line. 

6. The length of the crest should be at least three times the 
head on it. 

7. The back should be vertical for a depth at least twice that of 
the head to reduce the velocity of approach. 

8. The weir should be firm to prevent vibration. 

109. In formulas for the flow of water in open chanels, how is 
the fall of the surface taken into account? 

By introducing a quantity s representing the sine of the angle 
of slope of the surface with the horizontal or the fall in the surface 
divided by the corresponding distance. 

110. In the application of Kutter's formula for computing flow, 
what value of n is usually taken? 

For smooth brickwork n = 0.013 to 0.015. 

For clean iron pipes n = 0.013 to 0.015. 

For rubble masonry n = 0.017 to 0.020. 

For concrete conduits n = 0.012 to 0.020. 

For smooth earthen banks n = 0.020 to 0.035. 

111. Wliat is meant by the "mean hydraulic radius"? 

It is a quantity expressing the ratio of the area of any water 
oross-section in a pipe or channel to the length of the wetted peri- 
meter in same. 

112. Describe how the flow in the Aqueduct is gauged. 

A manhole is provided about 1 000 ft. south of Yonkers and 
fitted with special apparatus and working platform. A current meter 
attached to a IxB-in- brass rod connected in 5-ft. sections is used for 
obtaining the velocity. By means of the rod and the adjustments 
provided, the meter can be placed in any desired section of the 
stream. 

The area of the channel is divided into about 150 sections and 
the velocity obtained in each; the depth of water is also recorded. 



93 




94 

The average velocity is then computed and the discharge :=: area X 
velocity. 

Weirs are also constructed at several of the gate houses and the 
beads on the crest recorded daily. Tables have been prepared, giv- 
ing directly discharges for any head, so that the discharge at any 
time may be readily obtained. 

Where the weirs are so placed as not to be interfered with by the 
eddies and other disturbances, the results agree fairly well with 
those obtained by the current meter. 

113. The average section of a stream for a distance of 100 ft is 
as follows, the fall of the stream is in the same distance 0.12 ft. : 

Section. 

Centre. Depth = 25 feet. 

5' Right .\... " 8.5 " 

15' " " 6.0 " 

25' " " 0.0 •' 

5' Left " 8.05 " 

15' " " 6.0 " 

25' " " 0.0 " 

Take (c) — 88 in the formula v =i c y^ B ^S^and determine the value 
of V. 

In the formula v z= c \^r s 

c^88 

, , T .,. area cross-section 

r = hydraulic mean radius = — = -. 

wetted perimeter 

Area cross-section, 

^ =30 

^±^XW= 72.50 

?:5 + 10.x5= 46.25 

148.75 
2 

297.50 sq. ft. 
Wetted perimeter, 

V 10-4-2.52=. 10.31 
,-, ^ 5.22 

27.20 • 

2 

54.40 ft. 



95 

297.50 
54.40 
s= 0.12 — 100 = .0012 

88 



^ ~ 54.40 



p?Zl5? X .0012 = 7.13 ft. per sec. 
N 54.4 



114. How many cubic feet of water per second will be discharged 
by a canal 125 ft. wide at top, 75 ft. wide at bottom, 10 ft. deep and 
2 640 ft. long, with a fall of 40 ft. ? (Take c = 88.) 

(^ = Ac VtTs 

Q ■= discharge in cu. ft. per sec. 

c = 88. 

, ^ , . ^ . area section 

r z= hydraulic mean radius = — — —= . r — . 

*' wetted perimeter 

40 1 

s = sine of slope of water surface = „ ^ . ^ = --pr. 

2 640 66 

195 _i_ 7") 
A = area section = J" ' ^ X 10 = 1 000 sq. ft. 



Wetted perimeter = 75 + 2 x V 25'' + lO^^ := 1 29 ± feet. 

1000, ^ 
. = ^^feet. 

Q =- 1 000 X 88 ^^^ X -gg = 30 £00 ± cu. ft. per sec. 



115. Describe the method of ascertaining the horse power of a 
running stream. How much of the theoretical horse power can be 
delivered to a line shaft in a mill? 

The discharge of the stream per second should be first ascertained 
and its weight, W. computed. The velocity should be measured and 

converted into velocity head, Ih=~J . 

ine horse- power = 

550 ' 

If the stream discharges over a weir, IT will be the weight per 

second falling over the crest and ^the available fall or head, and 

.F =62.5X3.33 6 ;,»* = Knerer 

550 
Under the most favorable conditions not more than 90% of the 
theoretical horse power can be realized. 



96 

116. Suppose the quantity of water available for running a 
water wheel is 120 cu. ft. a second, the head 12 ft. and efficiency 
of the wheel 80%, how much work will the wheel do and how many 
horse power will this be ? 

The work done = 120 X 62.5 X 12 X -80 = 72 000 ft-lb. per 
sec. =^ff^^ = 131 ± horse power. 

117. Find the horse power of a stream discharging 100 cu. ft. per 
sec, fall 10 ft. 

550 



118. Explain how to ascertain the time required to empty a 
reservoir. 

Divide the reservoir into horizontal zones (by means of the con- 
tours, if possible), determine the volume of water in each zone (F) 
and the average head of each zone on the outlet (h). 

The quantity of water discharged per second will equal the area 
of the outlet X V^ gh X a coefficient varying from 0.6 to 0.9, de- 
pending upon the form of the outlet. 

By inserting the average value of h for the respective zones, the 
amount (Q) discharged per second by each is computed. 

Compute the number of seconds required to empty any zone. 
_ _ Quantity of water in any zone _ V 

"" ~~ Rate of discharge for the zone at the outlet ~ Q 

Then the total time (== 2 1) is found by summing up the number 
of seconds required to empty all the zones. 

The narrower the zones are taken the closer will the computed 
result equal the correct time. 

If the zones are equal iu area the calculations are simplified, as 

A d Ad c 

is then constant, giving for any zone t = 



a y 2 g " a ■\/2g7i, V h 

and the total time, ^^ = ^ —-^ d being the contour interval, 

y h 

A the area of the zone, 
a " " '* " outlet, 
Ad 



and c 



a s/2 



9 



119. Describe how the flow of water in circulating pipes is 
affected by friction, stating the various cases and assigning values 
for each and quoting your authority. 



97 

The velocity of flow of water in pipes is reduced by friction 
along the interior surface. The amount of this friction increases as 
the roughness of the surface increases, as the velocity increases, as 
the length increases, but the friction decreases as the diameter of 
the pipe is increased. The friction is usually considered as causing 
a loss of head, resulting in a corresponding decrease in the velocity 
and discharge. 

Loss of head due to friction = ( "77" ) o — • 

/= coefficient of friction = about .02. 
I = length of pipe in feet. 
d = diameter in feet. 
V = velocity in feet per sec. 

When the pipe is less than 4 000 diameters there is an appreciable 

1 v^ 
loss of head at entrance, which is equal to about z^—z 7^—. 

L.D z g 

When there are sharp curves in the pipes the friction increases; 
the smaller the radius of the curve the greater the loss. 

At changes in diameters or obstructions, there are still further 
friction losses. 



120. Explain what is meant by hydraulic gradient? What pro- 
vision should be made to insure successful work? Note: The latter 
part of this question refers to the case when the grade of the pipe 
is above the hydraulic gradient. 

For definition of hydraulic gradient see question No. 96. No 
part of the pipe line should rise above the hydraulic gradient, if 
possible. 

If air collects at the summit and cannot escape, the head due to 
the fall below this point is lost and the summit becomes the point 
of discharge. Where summits are unavoidable, "blow-oSs" are pro- 
vided to remove the air. 



121. Contraction of fluid vein. Where does it have to be consid- 
ered in designing a pipe line? 

The contraction of the fluid vein will be appreciable when the 
length of the pipe is less than about 4 000 times its diameter, and 
should be considered in designing the . entrance. The entrance 
should be built of a special casting having a bell-shaped mouth to 
reduce the loss of head to a minimum. 



122. State all the sources of loss of head in passing water 
through pipes and the means by which they can be lessened by care 
in design and construction. 

1. Loss of head at entrance. 

2. Logs of head due to friction in the interior. 

3. Loss of head due to bends or curves. 

4. Loss of head due to changes in diameter. 

5. Loss of head due to obstructions, connections and fittings. 

The entrance loss may be lessened by arranging a bell-shaped en- 
trance to the pipe; friction can be reduced by having the pipe of 
smooth bore throughout, by having it of as large diameter and as 
small length as possible. Curves should be avoided and when nec- 
essary be of as large radius as possible. The pipe should be kept 
clean inside, connections should have smooth faces, free from cor- 
ners and projections; sudden changes in diameter should be avoided, 
reducers being employed for the purpose. 

123. In the flow of water through channels and conduits, (a) 
state the several causes of resistance to flow. 

(h) What is the principle cause of resistance to flow in long 
pipes ? 

a. Frictions along the sides and bottom, bends, sudden change 
of cross-section, obstructions, wind; 

h. Friction along the interior of the pipe. 

124. How would you go to work to measure the quantity of 
water flowing in a pipe? 

Provide a graduated tank whose capacity is accurately known. 
To obtain the discharge, note carefully the time required to fill it, 
and compute the rate of flow; or, obtain the velocity by means of a 
Venturi meter, then knowing the cross-section of the pipe compute 
the flow, the frictional losses being allowed for by introduction of 
coefficient; or, use the formula (see Q. 93) after determining the 
diameter and length of pipe and the head on the outlet; or, weigh 
the water delivered by the pipe in a known time, and compute the 
volume of discharge from the weight. 

125. What will be the theoretical volume of discharge per second 
from a reservoir through a pipe one foot in diameter discharging at 
a depth of one hundred feet below the surface of the water? 



Q = AV 2 g h. A= area of cross section of pipe, h = the head in feet. 
g=i gravity constant, Q = discharge in cu. ft, per sec. 



^ = .78 54 X -/ 2 X 32.16 X 100 = 62.99 cu. ft. per sec. 



126. How many gallons of water will be discharged through a 
pipe 1 ft. in diameter, 328 ft. long, head 131 ft. coefficient of 
flow = .007? 



Q = Av = .7854 X n' X ^^^.. = .7854 X 



64.32 X 13.5 



\li+. 007 x328 



,7854 X 



868.32 



\ 3.444 

= .7854 X 16± 

= 12.5 4- cu. ft. per sec. 

= 5625 gall, per minute. 

127. How many gallons of water will be discharged through a 
pipe 1 ft. in diameter, 328 ft. long, head 1 ft., coefficient of flow 
0.02? 



§ = Areax J^^^^/^ 



S- 



= .7854 X 8.02 X I, ^ .02 X 328 
^ + 1.0 



= .7854 X 8.02 X — = = 2.25 cu. ft. per sec. 
V8.06 



128. State all the sources of strain which metal in a rising main 
must resist? 

1. Pressure due to head of water. 2. Water hammer caused by 
sudden stoppage. 3. Violent shocks caused by agitation of con- 
tained air due to sudden admission of water. 

129. State clearly all the prominent causes of failure in water 
pipes in use? 

1. Freezing of water in pipe. 2. Settlement, causing opening of 
joints and leakage. 3. Water hammer. 4. Excessive pressure. 5. 
Corrosion. 6. Electrolysis. 7. Defective material. 8. Air pressure 
when pipe is under vacuum. 

130. In a system of distribution of water through pipes are air 
valves always necessary and where should they be placed? 



100 

The air valves are only necessary in long lines where there are 
summits at which the air is likely to collect. In cities fire hydrants 
■usually take the place of air valves. 



131. At a dead end or considerable change of direction of a pipe 
is any precaution necessary, and if so what? 

A blow-off should be provided and the grades should be steep 
at dead ends. The pipe must be reinforced against water ram. At 
sharp curves special castings should be used. The two lines form- 
ing the turn should be secured together against water ram. 



132. When water is pumped from a series of wells what are the 
chief causes of difficulty in pumping? 

The main difficulty is the fluctuation of the water level in the 
wells, making it necessary to provide means for raising the water 
in the various wells separately. Eorcing air into the wells is a 
method frequently employed. Clogging of inlets is another diffi- 
culty. 



133. Describe in detail the method of laying a 30-in. water main. 

The trench should be dug 4-| ft. wide, and at joints deep enough 
to permit access for caulking. Two blocks and four wedges are 
then laid on line a little below grade of pipes. The pipes are rolled 
over the trench, raised by a derrick and lowered into position, bells 
facing up hill. They are then raised to true grade by means of the 
wedges; the spigots should be entered well into the bell and be con- 
centric with same. The gasket of oakum is driven into the annular 
opening, leaving about 3 in. for the lead. The lead is run in one 
operation so as to leave a projection bead which is driven in by 
caulking, making perfectly tight joints. 



134. What is meant by the term duty 'as applied to pumping 
engines ? 

The "Duty" of a pumping engine is the number of foot-pounds 
of work done by the pump per million gallon heat units supplied by 
the boiler. 



135. State the maximum, minimum and average rainfall in the 
Croton Valley. State about the minimum depth of rain that can 
be stored in the dryest year. 



101 



Maximum 64 in. 

Minimum 35 " 

Average 46 " 

The available storage in driest year is about 12 inches. 



136. Explain the theory of rain and that of the amount of rain- 
fall as affected by winds and mountain ranges. 

Eain results when atmospheric vapor-bearing strata are cooled 
to a sufficient extent to permit condensation, or where the pressure 
of the atmosphere is too low to keep the vapor in suspension. 

The heat of the sun produces evaporation from all water sur- 
faces and also from the surfaces of snow and ice. The vapor forms 
into clouds and remains in suspension until, through radiation, 
convection or other causes its temperature is reduced to the point 
of condensation. Winds and mountain ranges may cause increased 
or decreased rainfall, depending on conditions. 

A warm south wind progressing to the north is favorable to rain. 
Ocean winds which carry a great deal of moisture produce rain 
when they blow into colder climates. Winds from southwest to 
southeast are more apt to be followed by rain in most parts of the 
United States. Winds progressing from a dry region are not apt 
to cause rain. 

When a vapor-bearing strata of air is interfered with by a 
mountain range, rain is apt to occur on the windward side owing to 
the cooling of the air. The rain is largely cut off from the leeward 
side of the mountain, the progress of the rain-bearing winds being 
stopped. Eainfall increases with height, as the upper regions of 
the air are cooler and therefore not able to hold as much vapor in 
suspension. , 



137. (a) How is the total rainfall for any area determined ? (b) 
How the available rainfall ? (c) State the full information for both 
necessary for purposes of securing water supply? 

(a) The total rainfall is determined by a study of the rainfall 
statistics of the area in question, for as long a period as can be 
obtained. 

The average, maximum and minimum rate should be worked 
out and also the frequency and duration of "low cycle" years (^. e., 
years of extreme low rainfall). ' " ' ' •. . . 

The area of the watershed multiplied by the inches of rainfall 
in a given time gives the number of cubic feet of water which has 
fallen in that time. 



102 



(h) The available rainfall is determined by studies of the char- 
acter, shape, slope and general topography of the watershed, amount 
of water surface, frequency and duration of low cycle years, etc. 



^ 



^ 



^ 



A certain percentage of the total rainfall (usually about 30 to 
50), depending upon these studies, is taken as available for the 
supply. 

(c) For full information the following data should be obtained: 
The average maximum and minimum rainfall — their frequency and 
duration. A complete topographical map of the watershed — showing 
all timber land, extent of water surface, land under cultivation, 
etc., and giving contours. 

The height of water and discharge of the streams in the water- 
shed at different stages, especially during heavy freshets, determined 
by gaugings and studies of the streams. 



138. State what you know regarding evaporation from water 
surface, from snow and ice and from earth. 



Evaporation from the surface of water is caused by the exces- 
sive dissociation of molecules from the surface of the water over the 
condensation of the atmospheric vapor that is going on at the same" 
time. 

The amount of evaporation increases with the temperature of the 
water, temperature and dryness of the air, with the velocity of the 
winds or of the water, and increases as the depth of water de- 
creases. This evaporation from exposed reservoir surfaces may 
reach 3 to 4 ft. per annum. 

The evaporation is greatest during the day and least at night. 



103 

The evaporation must be taken into acconnt in computing 
amount of storage required at a given reservoir site. 

Ice and snow absorb^ sufficient heat from the surrounding atmos- 
phere to liquify and vaporize some of the surface particles. The 
vapor can usually be seen rising from cakes of ice. 

Evaporation from ice may amount to .06 in. per day and from 
snow .02 in. per day under favorable conditions. 



139. State briefly the successive steps necessary to secure infor- 
mation regarding the availability of a watershed for purposes of 
water supply. 

1. Make a general study of existing maps of the watershed and 
vicinity in order to arrange and subdivide the work of securing 
information. 

2. Examine the water at various locations to determine its fit- 
ness for domestic use. 

3. Organize a sufficient number of field and office survey parties 
and assign to each a definite part of the work. 

4. Direct the respective parties to prepare a complete topograph- 
ical map of the watershed, to study the rainfall statistics of the 
locality, to study the flow of all streams, to study the character of 
the water and the sanitary condition of the watershed, to investi- 
gate the possible damage to property, amount of territory to be 
acquired, industries affected, etc., to make borings at possible reser- 
voir sites, studies of geologic formations, soil physics, evaporation, 
percolation, etc. 

5. Make a comprehensive and thorough study of all the work 
accomplished and information secured to determine the availability 
of the watershed. 



140. Explain how a drainage area is determined. 

The first step is to secure or prepare if necessary a map showing 
contours in the watershed and the adjacent country. 

On the map draw a continuous line dividing the watershed in 
question from ' adjacent drainage districts. This can readily be 
done by observing the direction of the contours carefully, and fol- 
lowing the divides. The direction of flow is shown in the sketches 
below. 



104 



The area included within the line thus drawn is the area re- 
quired and can readily be determined by the planimeter or other 
usual means of determining areas. 




141. State all the important points which should be considered 
in the choice of a reservoir site for gravity water supply. 



The points to be considered are : 

1. The feasibility of constructing a reservoir at the site in ques* 
tion as determined by its geology and topography. 

2. The relative elevation and location of the site with respect to 
the tributary streams and the locality to be supplied. 

3. The storage capacity of the reservoir. 

4. The character of the underlying materials, their permeability, 
percolation, evaporation, etc. 

5. The extent and value of the property to be acquired and 
damage done to various interests affected. 

6. The cost, quantity of work, and amount of time required to 
prepare the site for storage. 

7. The sanitary condition of the adjacent territory. 

8. The location of the reservoir with respect to filtration areas 
in case the water is to be filtered. 

9. The proximity of suitable material for use in construction. 

10. The cost of construction. 



105 



142. Given a watershed, having an area of 10 sq. m. with 
5% water surface, calculate the storage necessary for daily supply 
of five million gallons and the dimensions of a spillway to provide 
for a flood of 80 cu. ft. per sec. per sq. mile. 

Assume a mean annual j-ainfall of 40 ins., 40% of which is 
available for storage. The available yield of the shed is then 
40^ 
12 



X .40 X 10 X 640 X 43 560 cu. ft. per annum = 371 712 000 cu. 



ft. = 2 787 840 000 gal. per annum. 

The annual consumption is 5 X 365 =^ 1 825 million gallons. 

The loss by evaporation and percolation from the 5% or 4 sq. 
mile of water surface is about equal to the annual rainfall upon its 

area, or ^ X |^ X 640 X 43 560 X '^•5 = 348 580 000 gallons per 

annum. 

Assume probable monthly percentages of the annual flow, loss 
and consumption and the resulting volumes as follows : 



Months. 


Available 
flow. 2 788 

million 
gallons an- 
nually. 


Loss by 
evaporation 
and percola- 
tion, 349 
million gal- 
lons 
annually. 


Consump- 
tion 
annually, 
1 825 milUon 
gallons. 


Surplus or 

deficiency, 

milUon 

gallons. 


Storage 
required. 


•January 


Per Million 
cent. gals. 
10 = 279 
10 = 279 
12 = 334 
10 = 279 
8 = 223 

7 = 195 
6 = 167 

5 = 140 

6 = 167 

8 = •<i23 

9 = 251 
9 = 251 


Per MilUon 
cent. gals. 

4 = 14 

5 = 17 

6 = 21 

7 = 24 
9 = 31 

12 = 42 
15 = 53 

15 r= 53 

10 = 35 

8 = 28 
5 = 17 
4 = 14 


Per Million 
cent. gals. 
8 = 146 
8 =r 146 

6 = 110 

7 = 128 

8 = 146 

10 = 182 

11 = 201 

12 = 219 
10 = 182 

8 = 146 
6 = 110 
6 = 110 


-f 109 
-- 116 
-- 203 

+ 127 
+ 46 

- 29] 

- 87' 
-132^- 

- 50 

- 49 

- 124 
+ 129 




February .... 




March 




April 




May 




Jnne 




July 


298 


August 


million 


September 


gallons. 


October 




November 




December 









300 000 000 gallons should be provided for. 

To provide for a flood of 80 cu. ft. per sq. m. per sec. the total 
discharge will be 80 X 10 = 800 cu. ft. per sec. 

Assuming that at flood the head on the crest will be 3 ft., we have 

Q == 3.33 b # or 800 = 3.33 b X 3^ 

from which length of spillway ^ & :^ 46 ft. 



-- 143. Describe clearly the method of accurately determining the 
character of foundation for an important dam. 



106 

The character of the foundation for a dam is determined by test 
pits and borings. 

The valley across which the dam is to be built is "gridironed'^ 
or divided into squares of convenient size and a test boring made at 
each corner. 

The borings should be carried down and into the rock under- 
lying the valley. 

Samples of the material penetrated should be brought up at 
every change in their character and generally at every 5 to 10 ft. in 
depth. These samples should be properly labeled and preserved. 

Each boring should be numbered for identification and the char- 
acter of the materials and the depths at which they are found prop- 
erly recorded so that a correct plot of the boring may be made. 

Vertical sections through the lines of borings should then be 
prepared from the recorded data showing the depths and character 
of all strata penetrated. 

Lines are then drawn connecting the same strata in the adjacent 
borings, giving profiles of the strata. 

A study of these profiles, the samples obtained, and the geologic 
features of the site gives the necessary information to determine 
the character of the foundation. 

The methods of boring used for the purpose will vary with the 
character of material and depth of penetration. 

Through the solid rock diamond drills must be used and the 
cores may be preserved intact. 

Through hardpan and earth at considerable depth the water jet 
and pipe method should be used. 

In shallow borings ordinary iron pipes or augers may be used 
or test pits dug. 



144. Write a report on your examination of a valley for the best 
location of a dam. Describe fully the examination made, the result 
of the examinations, and the reasons for the location, you have 
made. 

A report should contain first a description of the topographic 
features of the valley, describing the watersheds, their character 
and extent, the character of the water as to purity, etc.^ the geo- 
logic features, describing the different strata, giving their depths as 
determined by examinations with the aid of borings and test pits. It 
should contain all available statistics of the rainfall of that region 
and stream run-off. A rough estimate should be given of the prop- 
erty encroached upon, changes necessitated by the reservoir, and the 
population affected. Comparisons should be made for each tenta- 
tive location between the available storage, the costs of the con- 



107 



struction, the land encroached upon, and the topographic features 
incident to each. In general the dam should be located at the nar- 
rowest part of the valley where the most substantial foundation can 
be had, and the greatest storage area secured. 

145. Draw a section of an earthen dam to cross a valley, the 
depth to rock below the surface to the ground being 25 ft. at the 
deepest point, and the water surface to be 30 ft. above the ground 
at the same point. Give every detail to produce safe work and give 
reasons. 



ASHT! DAM, INDIA. 




The dimensions of the dam are shown in the sketch. 
Foundation to be stripped and uncovered for at least 4 ft., 
drained, poor bottom replaced by firm material, and springs and 
seams plugged before depositing the embankment materials. 

Materials. — Core of puddle or masonry carried down to rock to 
make the dam water-tight. 
The puddle should be : 

Coarse gravel, 1 part, to form a water-tight mixture. 
Fine gravel, 3.5 " 
Sand, 1.5 " 

Clay, .2 " 

Material on up-stream face to be built of the finer material, and 
on down-stream face of the coarser, to facilitate drainage of the 
bank. 

The puddle wall should be well bonded into adjacent materials 
during the construction. The material should be thoroughly com- 
pacted during the work. 

Up-stream fall should be paved, paving to end in a good toe wall 
to prevent wash of the bank. 



108 

Where the dam abuts into the hillside special care must be taken 
to make the work watertight and any pipes or conduits passing 
through the dam should be surrounded with cut of walls of puddle 
or masonry to prevent lines of seepage forming. 

146. Describe what you . would consider a perfect material for 
use in puddling. State also what you would do in case you would 
have a job of puddling to do and such material was not available? 

The best puddle is made of coarse gravel 1 part, fine gravel 3.5, 
clay 2.0 and sand 0.15. The clay should be opaque and uncrystal- 
lized and form a plastic mass with water. 

If this material is not obtainable gravelly loam may be used, the 
finest material being placed near the outside of the wall, or a mix- 
ture of equal parts of coarse gravel, sand and clay may be used. 

147. Describe the best method of using puddle in order to obtain 
an impervious bank. 

The gravel should be spread loosely in thin layers, and upon it 
the clay is spread, the lumps being broken; the sand is then depos- 
ited on the clay. The material is thoroughly mixed by passing a 
harrow over it; it is well moistened and then rolled with a heavy 
grooved roller to a compact mass. The finished puddle should not 
be exposed to the drying action of the air, but covered with: a layer 
of dry clay and sand. 

148. Suppose a dam is to be founded on rock, and on uncovering 
the rock it is found to be seamy with water coming up at points, 
what would you do? Suppose there is a spring with considerable 
head, what can be done? 

a. Remove the disintegrated portion of the rock, and pack quick 
setting neat cement or a rich mortar in the seams previously en- 
larged for the purpose, or if necessary pump grout into the seam 
until the flow is stopped. 

h. In the second case tap the spring and lead it away through 
an iron pipe to the down-stream side of the dam; or tap the spring 
with an iron pipe carrying same up vertically with the masonry to 
a height greater than the head of the spring. If possible, the spring 
should be drained by pumping, when grout should be forced in under 
pressure to seal it. 

149. What can be done to prevent water from following along a 
pipe which passes through a reservoir wall? 



109 



In the case of earthen walls non-porous material, such as puddle, 
should be thoroughly compacted around the pipe, or if possible the 
pipe should be enclosed in a masonry conduit. Special flange cast- 
ings may be introduced at frequent intervals along the pipe. In the 
case of masonry walls the latter method may be adopted, or cut off 
walls of concrete or block masonry may be used at the joints. The 
pipes should be encased in neat cement and care taken that the 
joints of the masonry abutting the pipe be broken so as not to 
provide continuous lines for seepage. 

150. When an earth bank for a reservoir or canal is to be founded 
on earth, does the surface need any preparation, and, if so, what 
and why? 

Yes. The surface should be thoroughly cleared and grubbed and 
the surface soil stripped, for the vegetation and top soil unless re- 
moved will render the bank porous and yielding. Objectionable 
portions should be removed and replaced by solid material. Springs 
should be tapped or diverted to prevent undermining. The surface 
is then watered and compacted by rolling, and stepped so as to make 
a good bond with the embankment. 

151. Make a sketch showing how the foot of a slope wall on the 
inside of an earthen reservoir bank should be supported and give 
your reasons for the construction shown? 

The toe wall should form a secure support for the paving above 
it and effectually prevent sliding or settling of the latter. The 
sketch shows such a wall founded in the natural earth bottom having 
a high sustaining and abutting power, used on some of the embank- 
ments in the Croton Valley. 



7n0U!^l 



Hicfh Wafer Line 




^^^^^^^^^^^- 



110 
152. Describe the theoretical design of a heavy masonry dam. 

1. Determine from the given conditions the height of the dam. 

2. Assume a top width of 1/10 the height. 

3. Assume a unit weight for the masonry to be used' in the 
work. 

4. Compute the depth at which the batter begins on the front 
face, that is, carry the dam section down with the top width to a 
point at which the resultant of the water pressure and the weight of 
the masonry just falls at the middle third of the width. The posi- 
tion of this point may be found thus : 

Let W = weight of dam for height h: w =■ wt per cu. ft. of water ; w'^ 
= wt per cu. ft. masonry; h = width of dam. 

The moment due to the water pressure = -^ wh^ 

b 

The resisting moment due to the masonry taken about the point 

I from the outside = TT X -^- ^• 

6 

Then — wlf= — -r-; Ir = = =hb^ — ;h^ = b^ — ; 

b b w w w w 

h=^b I J^ or about li 6. 






2 
w 



6. From this point downward the back face may be vertical and 
the front face of the dam batters sufficiently to Jceep the line of re- 
sultant pressure at the middle third. Divide the dam into sections 
by horizontal lines or joints 10 ft. apart and obtain by moments or 
graphically the position of the line of pressure for reservoir full and 
empty at each joint. Compute also the maximum unit pressure on 
the masonry for reservoir full and empty at each joint. When the 
resultant falls at the middle third the maximum pressure equals 
twice the mean pressure. 

6. Continue this procedure until a joint is reached at which the 
unit pressure on the masonry begins to exceed assumed safe limits. 
From this point down the limiting pressure will control the width 
of the dam. The width should be sufficient to reduce the unit pres- 
sures to proper limits, the lines of pressure then falling near the 
center of the dam. 

Owing to the rapid increase in the weight the width will rapidly 
increase below this point, giving an extensive width at foundation 
bed. 

The maximum unit pressure on the foundation bed should be 
computed to insure that it does not exceed the allowable unit pres- 
sure for the underlying material. 

There are thus three stages of the calculation. 



Ill 



1. Width near top — Controlled by practical considerations (and 
made about "i-o height). 

2. Width of middle portion — Computed so that line of pressure 
for reservoir full will fall just at the middle third. 

3. Width of lower portion — Computed so that there will be no 
excessive unit pressure on the masonry. 

153. Given an overflow masonry dam 8 ft. wide on top with 
vertical back, front batter 6 in. per ft., height 25 ft., weight of ma- 
sonry 140 lbs. per cu. ft., flood 2 ft. over crest, show whether or not 
the dam will be stable. 



Wafer Leye/ 




-hrZ:o 



i^_Hz^j,e5ejbs. 



Horizontal Pressure H= d x h {^2 + ^i) X 62.5 = 22 656 625 lbs. 
Distance to Center Pressure, 

. h'' — h,^ 



c=t 



h.J — \ 



^=13.0 feet. 



Moment of water pressure = H X c = 294 531 ft-lbs. 
Q _l_ on 5 
The weight of the dam W= "^^ ' X 25 x 140 = 498.15 lbs. 

By taking moments about the back, the distance of the center of 
gravity to the back of the dam g = 

'8 + 12.5\ ) . /8 + 20.5^ 



I 8 X 25 X 4+ ^^-^X '' X 



(^^) [ - C"^^ 



2 '^ V 3 / ) • \ 2 

= 7.1. 

When resultant falls at |- from face, Jc = | X 20.5 — 7.1 = 
The moment of resistance = W X k = 327 679 ft-lbs., 



X 25 



• 112 

Wh 

Wk = Hcf, f = factor of safety = ^^ = 1.1+ 

The dam is therefore stable against overturning. 
To insure stability against sliding, 

i? < TF X 0.75 (0.75 = coefficient of function), 

which is seen to be the case. 

W 

The maximum unit pressure on masonry = 2 x kk-^ is very small 

as is also the pressure on the foundation. 

154. State the important details of construction of (a) a heavy 
masonry dam; (h) such features as are peculiar to concrete. 

The important details are: 

1. Temporary structures to divert the flow of the river should' 
first be built so that the work of constructing the dam may be car- 
ried on in the dry. These structures should be of rigid and fairly 
permanent character and of sufficient capacity so that the work on 
the dam proper will not be endangered. 

2. The excavation is then proceeded with, the material being 
disposed of to the best advantage. In making the excavation the 
slopes should be protected from slides and the bottom kept well 
drained. The foundation should be carried down to a satisfactory 
rock stratum, the soft and decomposed rock being removed. 

3. All fissures, holes or seams in the bottom must be thoroughly 
closed by grouting and springs should be led away below the dam or 
securely plugged. 

4. Before starting the masonry the rock surface should be flushed 
and painted with neat cement mortar and a rich concrete or mortar 
used to fill up the irregularities. 

5. The masonry should be laid (using the precautions outlined 
in Q. No. 155) so that the entire structure will be a compact and 
homogeneous monolith. 

6. Where the dam abuts into the hillsides special care should be 
taken to make the joints tight. 

7. Where pipes or other structures are built through the dam, 
cut-off walls should be constructed and the' work done in the tightest 
manner possible to prevent the creation of lines of seepage. 

(h) For Concrete see Q. No. 40. 



155. In the construction of a dam in stone masonry to resist the 
passage of water through it state minutely every precaution to be 
taken to make the dam itself watertight? 

1. The sand, cement and stone should all be of the best quality; 
the mixing and using of the mortar carefully supervised. 



113 

2. The upper and lower faces of the dam should be built of ashlar 
laid in close joints. 

3. The dam should be built on a well-prepared rock foundation, 
the rock being painted with neat cement before the masonry is laid. 

4. The inside or backing may be of rubble or concrete. 

5. The joints in the rubble must be thoroughly filled with mor- 
tar, large stones should be used, and as few^ spalls as possible; care 
must be taken that no open spaces are left under the stone. 

6. The bonding should be thorough, horizontally and vertically 
and all unfinished portions should be racked so that on joining new 
work a good bond will be secured. 

7. The face joints must be thoroughly pointed with 1 to 2 
mortar. 

8. In joining old and new work the old surface must be well 
cleaned and painted with cement grout before laying masonry. 

9. 'No work should be done in freezing weather. The stones must 
be well wet before using. No mortar partly set must be used. In 
cold weather the sand and stones should be heated. In warm 
weather the masonry should be kept wet, as the loss of too much 
water interferes with setting and injures the masonry. 

10. Where the dam abuts into the sides of the valley proper 
embankments must be built to prevent the passage of water around 
them. 

11. Should the foundation be seamy or springs be encountered, 
they must be securely plugged by grouting or otherwise. 

12. Pipes or conduits passing through the dam should be pro- 
tected by special cut-ofi walls and neat cement to avoid forming 
lines of seepage. 



156. In laying up the masonry in a dam what measures as to 
shape of stone, cutting same, bonding same, and laying same will 
tend to make the tighest work ? 

1. As to shape, the body of the dam should be composed of large 
blocks of rubble, as few spalls as possible being used; the faces of 
the dam above the river bed should be constructed of large blocks 
of cut stone, laid in 1 :2 mortar. 

2. As to cutting, the rubble blocks should be trimmed roughly to 
remove irregular projections and feather edges. The face stones 
should be dressed to a true even surface at the joints to a depth of a 
foot or more, the back being roughly squared. Special stones, such 
as required at inlets and chambers, etc., should be cut to exact 
dimensions. 

3. As to bonding, the rubble composing the body of the wall 
should be thoroughly interlocked and unfinished work should be 



114 

"racked back" ; face stones should be bonded into the rubble backing 
by the use of frequent headers. 

4. The stones should be laid on natural bed in first class Port- 
land cement mortar, all joints being entirely filled with mortar. The 
face joints should be inclined inward, so as to make bed joints if 
possible normal to face of dam. All face joints should be raked to 
a depth of about 2 in. and thoroughly pointed with a rich Portland 
cement mortar. 

157. Describe minutely everything to be done in setting a large 
rubble block in the heart of such a dam, from the time the stone is 
lifted until the setting is complete. What objections, if any, are 
there to the use of grout in such a case? State fully and clearly. 

a. After the stone is lifted give it a thorough drenching; mean- 
while the mason should prepare the mortar bed for same; the stone 
is then raised and set on its natural bed in the place thus prepared. 
It is now raised again, the mortar bed inspected and sufficient mor- 
tar added to fill the joints. It is then finally set. Spalls should be 
placed only where necessary to give an even bed for the large block, 
as few as possible being used. No joints should be filled with mortar 
after the blocks are in place. 

h. Grout is porous, has not sufficient binding qualities, and will 
not prevent the passage of water. 

158. State what you know about the mechanical analysis of sand, 
gravel, etc.? 

Sand with respect to size is called coarse when the grains range 
from l/16th to l/8th of an inch in diameter, fine from l/16th to 
l/24th, and very fine, from l/30th to l/60th. The fineness of sand 
is obtained by passing through a series of sieves ranging from 20 to 
170 holes per lineal inch and noting the percentages retained. When 
the size is very small, the fineness is determined by "water elutri- 
tion," which consists of noting the time that it takes the particles 
of sand to sink in water, the finest taking the longest time. When 
the sand is to be used for filter beds, the effective size and the uni- 
formity coefficient are determined; the former is that size than 
which 90% is coarser and 10% finer; the latter is the ratio between 
the effective size and that size than which 60% is coarser and 40% 
finer. The voids in the sand can easily be determined by putting it 
into a vessel of known capacity and noting the volume of water that 
may be added to overflowing. The cleanness can be determined by 
rubbing a little in the palm and observing the dust left after the 
sand is thrown away. Sharpness of sand is determined by exami- 
nation with a lens, and noting the sound when rubbed near the 



115 

ear. The size of the gravel can be determined by using a series of 
sieves of varying meshes. 



159. Discuss the important points to be considered in the con- 
struction of a large distributing reservoir as is proposed near 
Yonkers. 



The important points to be considered are: 

1. The suitability of the site with respect to a. Its elevation 
above sea level. (It should be high.) h. Its storage capacity. 
(Should be sufficient for a week's supply.) 

2. Character of the material underlying the site. (Should be 
reasonably watertight.) 

3. Its location with respect to the city and watersheds system. 
(Should be on a reasonably direct line from the watershed to the 
city.) 

4. Cost of necessary land. (Must not be prohibitive.) 

5. Cost of constructing the reservoir. (Must not be prohibitive.) 

6. Disposal of the excavated material. (As much as possible 
should be used on the work and the rest used for filling.) 

7. Imperviousness of the banks and bottom. (Both must be 
made watertight and durable.) 

8. Provision for blow-off and cleaning. (Should be arranged 
in units and apparatus be provided for this purpose.) 

9. Appliances for regulating and measuring head of water, rate 
and quantity of flow should be provided. 

10. Connections to water supply system. (Gate houses should 
be provided to divert the water to all desired sections.) 

11. General appearance when finished.' Embankments should 
be sodded, walks built, railings, etc., to secure safety and an excel- 
lent appearance. 

12. The Construction Details — Character of all materials must 
be the best, the work done in best manner for safety, durability and 
economy. 



160. State what you know regarding sedimentation in reservoirs 
and its prevention. 

Sedimentation in storage reservoirs is an object usually to be 
desired and not prevented. As a preliminary to filtration sedimenta- 
tion is often resorted to and sometimes promoted by the admixture 
of chemicals. 



116 

Sedimentation relieves the water of a large part of the sus- 
pended impurities and therefore improves its quality. 

In reservoirs exposed to the sun the character of the water is 
affected by organic growths, such as bacteria and algae. These 
give to the water the somewhat fishy taste and odor. The addition 
of a small amount of . copper sulphate has been found to prevent 
these growths to some extent. 

In some cases it is desired to prevent sedimentation owing to 
clogging of valves, etc., and to keep the bottom of the reservoir 
clean. In such cases the arrangement of inlets and outlets to the 
reservoir should be such as to produce a continuous motion of the 
water, thereby preventing settling; or submerged pipes, into which 
air or water is forced under pressure, may be employed for the same 
purpose. 



161. Describe fully a system of water filtration suitable for a 
large city. 

The essential features of a large filtration plant are: 

1. Conduits leading from the storage reservoirs to the filter 
plant of sufiicient capacity to carry the maximum flow. 

2. Settling basins for the reception of the raw water, divided 
into sections for cleaning. 

3. Gates, etc., controlling the flow into these basins. 

4. A large number of filter beds divided into units of convenient 
size. Each filter bed may be about one acre in area and about 
twenty beds comprise the unit. lEach bed about 4 ft. thick, con- 
structed of sand and gravel, ranging in size from coarse to very 
fine, the finest being on top. 

5. Necessary pipes, etc., to regulate the flow of water to the vari- 
ous filter beds. The arrangement should be such that any filter bed, 
any unit or any system may be operated independently of all the 
others. 

6. Apparatus for measuring and regulating the depth of water 
on the filters. 

7. The necessary filtering materials, consisting of layers of 
broken stone and sand, decreasing in size from very coarse to very 
fine, the total thickness of the bed being about 4 ft. 

8. Under drains for the collection of the filtered water. 

9. Receiving basins for the filtered water. 

10. Apparatus regulating the flow into the latter, 

11. Appliances for screening and washing the sand. 

12. A laboratory for examining the condition of the water before 
and after filtration. 

The sketch below shows a modern filtration plant for a city. 



117 




118 

162. State the important points to be considered in the construc- 
tion of an open canal for carrying water supply. 

The following points must be considered: 

1. The foundation and slopes should be stripped of all perishable 
material after the excavation has been completed, replaced by good 
firm earth and compacted. 

2. The bottom and slopes of the canal should be made as water- 
tight as the means at hand will permit. (Paved, puddled, or con- 
creted if possible.) 

3. The section adapted should be sufficient to carry the maxi- 
mum flow required without the water level rising above the banks 
or protected portion of the slopes. 

4. The grade should be such that the velocity will not exceed 6 
ft. per second, so that there will be no injury to the canal lining. 

5. The bottom and sides should also be made as smooth as pos- 
sible to give a maximum discharge with a minimum section. 

6. Where a change of direction of grade or of cross-section 
occurs, the change should be made gradually to prevent loss of 
head, and excessive velocity and consequent liability to wash of the 
lining or deposition of sediment. 

7. At the head works and other places proper screens should be 
located to prevent any undesirable substances from entering the 
canaL 

8. Provision should be made for emptying the canal when re- 
quired for the purpose of cleaning, repairs or renewals. 

9. The plans and specifications should be followed and all the 
work done in as first-class a manner as the available funds permit. 



163. Show by sketches and describe the method of carrying a 
large conduit over a marsh. 

A conduit may be carried over marsh in several ways. 

1. By piles. Three lines of piles, about 6 to 10 ft. centers 
longitudinally, are driven to firm bearing along the line of the 
conduit. Upon the piles properly cut ofl a timber platform or a 
concrete base is built for the support of the conduit. (Cut, p. 119.) 

2. By mattresses. These are made up of bundles of fascines and 
deposited over an area extending some distances outside of the con- 
duit lines; upon these mattresses the foundation course of concrete 
or timber may be built for the support of the conduit. 

3. By sheeting. Heavy sheet piles are driven along the outside 
lines of the conduit and the material for several feet in depth exca- 
vated until a satisfactory depth is reached. The trench is then 
refilled with concrete forming the foundation course for the conduit. 



119 




164. Explain the method of designing a masonry arch viaduct 
to carry an aqueduct. 

1. The section of the aqueduct being known, the depth of the 
structure above the arch, and the span and rise of the latter may be 
tentatively arrived at by studies of the surveys, condition of the 
stream, height and extent of opening required and other determin- 
ing factors. 

2. The thickness of the arch ring and grade of invert is then 
determined, which fixes the spandrels, roadway, and other parts of 
viaduct. The load considered on the arch should include its own 
weight, the dead weight of the structure above it the weight of the 
water in the conduit and the moving live load on the bridge. A 
tentative value of the thickness may be obtained by Trautwine's 
formula, 

t= J f- 0.2 and the graphical method applied to test its 

suitability. 

3. The thickness being determined, the width of the abutment at 
the springing and the width at the foundation line are determined 
to satisfy the theoretical and practical requirements for stability. 

4. Where two adjacent arch spans bear on one abutment the 
thrust of both should be combined to obtain the direction and inten- 
sity of the resultant. 

5. The thickness of the material forming the conduit should 
be sufficient to withstand the water pressure. 



120 

6. The abutments should be carried down to a satisfactory rock 
foundation, the width being increased over the theoretical conditions 
required. 



165. Explain the method of designing a steel water tower 100 ft. 
high, 40 ft. in diameter. 

In designing a water tower the thickness of the plates must be 
sufficient to safely withstand the strain due to: 

1. Static pressure of the water. 

2. Wind pressure. 

3. If the tank is mounted on pillars the anchorages must be 
strong enough to withstand the overturning moment of the wind. 

4. In splicing sections of the rings, the rivets must be sufficient 
to transmit the strain. 

Thickness of metal required at any depth h, to resist the static 
pressure of the water. 

_ rp_Pd 

~ 2s 

h = depth of water at point in question (in feet). 
d = diameter in inches. 

s = allowable strain in metal, lbs. per sq. inch. 
p =: pressure of water at depth h ==■ .434 h. lb. per sq. in. 
Thickness required to resist the pressure of the wind when 
tank is empty. 

Hw ^ 



n dmS 

T = thickness required in inches at any point. 

H = height oi standpipe above point in feet. 

w = pressure of wind per foot in height. 
d = diameter in feet. 

m = sin. 45° = .707. 
s = allowable tensile strain lb. per sq. in. 

In tanks with large diameters the thickness will usually be 
determined by the hydrostatic pressure, but in high thin tanks the 
wind pressure will determine the thickness. 

For convenience in design the height may be divided into hori- 
zontal sections 10 feet apart and the thickness required for each 
section calculated. 

When the tank is mounted on pillars the total wind pressure on 
its surface multiplied by the distance from its center of pressure 
to the tops of pillars and also to the anchorage will give the over- 
turning moment at these points; these connections must be designed 
to withstand the resulting strains. 



121 



166. A stone arch bridge must take the drainage of 5 000 acres. 
How many cubic feet per second must be carried? 

c = 0.5; s = 12; y ^ 1.5. 

= .50 X 1.5 X Vl2 X 500"0« 

= .75 X 1 106+ = 829-f- cu. ft. per sec. 

167. Assume bridge semicircular for 50-ft. roadway; design 
opening and show by sketches approximate construction. 

The area of culvert opening may be found by Talbot's formula. 

Area opening = Constant -\/ (Drainage Area in acres) ^ in sq. feet. 
Constant =i \ ±i for rolling country, 

■^\± " hilly 
= 1 ± ", mountainous " 
Using c = i 

A=\^ V5000^ = ^^ ^^- ^^®^- 
A 10 ft. semicircular arch culvert having an area of 100 sq. 
ft., will answer the purpose. 




Sectional End Elevation. 



Part 
Long. Section. 




122 

The total discharge being 829 cu. ft. per sec., the velocity will 
be 829 -f- 99, or 8.4 ft. per sec, and the grade fixed accordingly; or, 
a maximum velocity may be assumed and the area required found 
by dividing it into the flow. The grade can then be computed by 
the Chezy Kutter formula or taken out "of tables. 



168. A culvert must take drainage from 1 000 acres. How many 
cubic feet per second must be carried by the culvert? Use formula 
Q -- Qy * / g ^3^ where Q equals cubic feet per second reaching cul- 
vert; c equals proportion of rainfall reaching culvert; y equals rain- 
fall per hour; s equals average slope of watershed in feet (per 
1000 ft. of horizontal distance) and a equals acres of watershed. 
(Give values to c, y and s according to your judgment; exact quan- 
tities are not required). 

Assume c = .50, 3/ = 1.00, s = 10.00. 

Then g = .50 x 1.0 X VlO X 1000^ = 158 cu. ft. per sec. 



169. Calculate the opening necessary in a road culvert having a 
"fall of 3 in. in 30 ft., to carry the flood flow of a brook draining 1.25 
sq. miles of farm country, with a general slope of 5 ft. in a 
thousand. 

0.5 X 1 X VS X 800« 
= 112.5 cu. ft. per sec. 
To calculate opening, 

Q — Av = A cV'i^s, 

S O -7-01; 3 go 120> 

Assume c = 40. 



Q^AX^OX^II-^: 



112.5 = ^ X^, ^ = 17±feet. 
A 4 X 5 culvert should be used. 



170. Suppose a tank of given height h, and diameter d, to be 
filled with water, how would you tell the tensile strain on the hoop 
which resists pressure on the lower foot of height ? 



123 



Let p = pressure per square inch at center of hoop. 
h = head of water on center of hoop. 
IV = weight per cu. ft. of water = 62.5 lbs. 
r = radius of hoop in inches = i d 
t = thickness of hoop metal in inches. 
s = strain on hoop in lbs. per square inch. 

Then p = ^X (h — 0.5) = .434 (h — 0.5). 

p r = s t 

Therefore s = p ^= .434 {h — 0.5) ~ 
t t 



DOCK DEPAKTMENT. 

171. Describe the operation of making a hydrographic survey for 
a pier on the North River, together with the location of property 
lines, etc. 

1. Establish accurate traverse lines at or near the pier site and 
locate all property lines, streets, shore lines, obstructions, topo- 
graphic and hydrographic features with reference to them, and 
show contours at 2-ft. intervals. 

2. Take soundings in the vicinity of the proposed pier and pre- 
pare a contour map of the bottom. (See Q. ISTo. 172.) 

3. Take borings at the pier site sufficient in number and to suf- 
ficient depths so that the character of the underlying material will 
be fully established. (See Q. No. 174,) 

4. Plot the work to a large scale. The ijiaps will give all the infor- 
mation required to proceed with the design and construction of the 
pier. 

172. Describe in full detail the method of sounding an area 
under water in a tideway so as to get accurate depths and locations. 

Soundings are made with cylindrical shaped leads, weighing 
about twenty pounds. These are attached to lines made of Italian 
hemp, the size depending upon the attached weight. The lines are 
fully stretched before put into use, graduated and tagged every five 
feet; intermediate feet being marked by cotton strips. For depths 
less than fifteen feet sounding poles may be used. A boat is pro- 
vided, brought into any desired position, the lead cast out and the 
depth recorded. The location of the point at which the sounding 
has been taken may be obtained — 

1. By reading 2 or more angles from the shore to a flag held in 
the boat. 

2. By angles read in the boat to objects fixed on the shore. 



124 

3. By keeping along known range lines. 

4. By known time intervals, the velocity and direction of the 
l)oat being known. 

During the progress of the work, readings of a tide gauge 
should be taken hourly, or an automatic gauge provided. All 
soundings should be reduced to the established datum plane before 
plotting the work, and a contour map of the bottom of the tideway 
should be prepared from the plotted depths. 

173. To what plane of reference should surroundings in a 
harbor be referred and for what reasons? 

Soundings in a harbor are usually referred to mean high water, 
as this is the most constant of the tidal conditions. The datum for 
the Dock Department in the City of New York is local mean low 
^ater. 

174. Describe all the methods in use in dock building for deter- 
mining the character of the earth strata down to rock at any point 
hefore beginning the building of a bulkhead. 

The character of the strata may be determined by — 

1. Sinking shafts or test pits. 

2. By sounding or boring. 

For depths from 10 to 20 ft., iron rods, pipes or augers 2 in. to 
3 in. in diameter are used. 

3. For greater depths, pipes may be sunk with the aid of water 
and samples of material brought up by buckets lowered into the 
pipe. 

4. By the water jet: An iron pipe li in. in diameter is driven 
down, and into this a |-in. pipe is inserted. Water is forced into 
the inner pipe and issues through perforations in its lower end, 
loosening the material, which with the water rises between the pipes 
to the surface. 

At intervals the bottom of the inner pipe is replaced by a special 
section by means of which a sample of the material is brought up. 

This method is applicable to all material except rock and for all 
depths. 

5. Borings in rock are made by the diamond drill. 

This consists of a core bit, core lifter and core barrel. The core 
bit is provided with several diamonds, forming cutting edges. The 
bit is forced into the rock and the core forced into the barrel. The 
core can be brought to the surface at any time by means of the 
lifter. 

Complete records should be kept of the location of the borings, 
character and depths of all materials penetrated, samples of same 



125 

and all other pertinent information obtained. Profiles along re- 
quired lines are then prepared from the data and the character of 
the foundation fairly established. 



175. Describe clearly and fully the process of cement testing in. 
use in building under water. 

The tests for cement are: 

1. Test for fineness of grinding. 

2. Test for specific gravity. 

3. Test for time of setting. 

4. Test for soundness. 

5. Test for strength. 

1. The test for fineness is made by passing the cement through l 
sieves of various meshes and noting the percentages retained in 
each. Not more than 2% should be retained on a ISTo. 100 seive, 
and 10% on a No. 50. 

2. Specific gravity of cement is determined by using a special 
specific gravity balance. The specific gravity should be about 3.1. 

3. Time of setting — activity. 

Pats of cement are made with about 2.5% water, 2 or 3 in. diam- 
eter, and i in. thick. They are immersed in water at 65° P., and 
the time required to set hard enough to bear -h in. wire having 
a 1-lb. weight, and -ri in. wire having a 1-lb weight, is noted, 
giving "initial set" and "^'final set." Por a good cement the time 
for the initial set should be less than 45 minutes and the final set 
within 10 hours. 

4. Soundness is determined by immersing the pats made with, 
thin edges in water and noting blowing or cracks at edges, which, 
indicates free lime or magnesia. If lime is present, storage will 
improve the cement. Magnesia is injurious. This test may be ac- 
celerated by immersing the pats in a steam bath. 

5. Strength: Briquettes having a cross section of 1 sq. in. are 
made of neat cement and also of various mixtures of cement and*, 
sand. They are allowed to set one day in air and then are immersed 
in water. After periods of 24 hours, 7 days, 28 days, etc., they are- 
broken by testing machines and the breaking weights noted. 

A good Portland cement should develop a strength at the end 
of one day, of 175 lb. per sq. in.; at the end of 7 days, 450 lb. 
per sq. in.; at the end of 28 days, 550 lb. per sq. in. 



176. Describe clearly and fully every part of the process of' 
making one of the large concrete blocks in use in bulkheads with, 
every precaution needed for the best work. 



126 

The concrete blocks are composed of 1 : 2 : 5 mixture, moulded 
in air and allowed to stand 10-14 days before shipping to work. 
The mould boxes are cored for chain holes. The grooves match in 
adjacent blocks and are later filled with concrete in bags. The back 
of the blocks is moulded so as to give a good bond with the backing. 

177. Describe the best method of setting concrete blocks for a 
bulkhead under water, including location as to line and level. 

The necessary preparation and leveling of the site is done by 
divers with the aid of heavy iron straight edges. The blocks are 
brought to the site and lifted by a crane. When swinging into posi- 
tion they are suspended about half their depth in the water to 
reduce the load on the lifting tackle. When near the right location 
they are lowered and accurately adjusted when about 3 or 4 inches 
above lower course. Accurate adjustment for line may be secured 
by timber guide pieces wedged into the dowel grooves in the blocks, 
and by stop timbers attached to the blocks already set. Divers 
assist in the work when necessary. After the blocks are set the 
dowel grooves are packed full of concrete. 



178. When it is necessary to lay concrete under water, how can 
it be done with good results? 

Concrete may be deposited under water 

1. In paper or burlap bags carefully lowered and placed into 
position with the aid of divers. 

2. A V-shaped box of wood or iron is commonly used. It is 
filled with concrete and lowered by a crane. One of the sloping sides 
is swung open by pulling out a pin, which is attached to a string 
reaching the surface, and the concrete deposited in place. 

3. Long hopper shaped tubes called "Tramie" are also used. 
They are open at both ends and their length is adjustable. They are 
suspended in place by a crane, and a continuous flow of concrete 
kept up. The tube is thus kept full and separation of material is 
avoided. 

In all methods no opportunity should be given for the material to 
separate. Leveling should be done by rakes and no ramming allowed. 

179. Explain the method used for calculating the forces acting 
on the bulkhead wall, both for and against stability. 

The forces acting for stability are: 

1. The weight of the submerged portion of the wall. 

2. The weight of the portion of the wall not submerged. 



J 27 




^/f: /I/ 




e»^*** 



The forces acting against stability are: 

1. The weight of the submerged rip rap 75 

2. The weight of the submerged earth filling. ... 70 

3. The weight of the earth filling not submerged 110 

4. The weight of the rip rap not submerged .... 110 

5. Surcharge and liveload 1 000 lb. per 

sq. ft. 

To find the thrust, reduce the quantities of the several materials 
to equivalents of the same material and find the resultant thrust 
as in case of a retaining wall. Combine this thrust through the 
centre of pressure with the weight of the wall through its centre 
of gravity and find the position of the resultant. 



For complete discussion of bulkhead walls, see •' Hoag on Dock Department of City 
of New York. Proceedings of Municipal Engineers. March, 1905. 



128 



180. When the foundation of a bulkhead is on rock, is any 
preparation of the rock ever necessary, and if so, what, and for what 
reasons ? 

The bulkhead foundation area is thoroughly dredged off and the 
holes, pockets and rock surface pumped clean by means of an 8 in. 
pump, and loose or disintegrated rock removed, divers being em- 
ployed to assist in the work. Where the surface of the rock slopes 
evenly, it should be benched or stepped. 

This treatment of the rock surface is necessary to secure a firm 
and lasting bond between the rock and the overlying masonry. 

181. Where rock is near the surface, what type of wall is used? 
Upon the prepared rock bottom concrete is laid up in bags, 

3 ft. X 2 ft. X 8 in. to a surface having a slope towards the 
shore of 1 in 12. 

Gravel concrete mortar is then used to even up the surface of 
the bags, which is then smoothed by means of heavy iron straight 
edges worked back and forth by divers. Upon this, the concrete 
blocks weighing about 70 tons are set, their dimensions being 17 ft. 
high, 6 ft. long, 12^ ft. wide at the base and 7 ft. at the top; they 
are stepped in the rear to make a good bond with the backing. 

Upon the concrete blocks 5 courses (including the coping) of 
granite dimension stone masonry are set, starting about 2.5 ft. below 
mean low water to about 9.5 ft. above. The front batter is 1 : 12. 

The dimension stone is backed with concrete and rip rap is 
deposited in back of the wall. 




129 



182. Describe the type of wall when the rock is 40 feet beneath 
the bed of the river. 

In this case the foundation is prepared in a similar manner to 
the shallow rock wall as described in Q. No. 181. 

Additional concrete blocks are used to bring the wall up to mean 
low water. 




183. Make a sketch of the typical section of bulkhead in use at 
present where the bottom is good and depth moderate. 

Where the bottom is firm the foundation area is dredged for a 
depth of about 20 feet, piles are driven to rock or to firm bearing and 
their tops cut off at about 15 feet below mean low water. The soft 
material in front and over the piles is removed and replaced with 
cobbles. A bed of mortar for the footing course is deposited around 
the piles. Upon this the wall is built and rip rap deposited in front 
and rear. (See Fig. 1, p. 130.) 



184. Make a sketch of the section adopted where the bottom is 
soft to a considerable depth and without calculation explain fully 
the reasons for the adoption of the form and how it is that safety 
is secured by it. 



mo 



^ ^.^^^^^^m^^^\Mi^^^ 




W^' 



Fig. 1. 




i 


>-p 


t^ 


<^ 


©^-< 




©^-( 


¥^ 


> 




1 


'> 




r 1 r 






^ P 




_/: 


^ ■ 




/ \ 








^ \ 














^ t 




\ if 




iV 














L f 




~l-f 


















" _& 




1 






•^ 




~~^ 


' 




\ 




?^r 


? L._ .. 
























" ^ 


















L^ — 


"t 














, 1 ,.. 






. 1 . 




- 


- 





Un'LsfAf^i^-. 



Fig 2. 



131 

When the bottom is soft for a great depth the wall is founded on 
piles driven to a firm bearing, spliced if necessary. 

The tops of the piles are cut off about 15 feet below mean low 
water and surrounded with an embankment of rip rap, the material 
for some depth around the piles being dredged. Concrete is de- 
posited on the rip rap and the wall built on the concrete base. In 
order to reduce the thrust on the wall proper, a "relieving platform" 
is built upon piles driven behind the wall. These piles are carried 
up above mean low water and braced by inclined piles. 

The dimensions and arrangement of a typical section are shown 
in Fig. ISTo. 2. The relieving platform permits the thickness of 
the wall itself to be reduced, resulting in a consequent saving in 
money and time of construction. 

185. In using drift bolts for fastening timber, what precautions 
are necessary to obtain the greatest possible holding power in the 
timber ? 

The bolts should have a larger cross section area by about 25% 
than the holes into which they are driven, their ends slightly 
pointed with a hammer, and they should be of sufficient length to 
make a firm connection. Round bolts are preferable to square, as 
they do not tear the wood. 



HIGHWAYS AJSTD SEWERS. 

186. Name the principal pavements used in city streets. 
The principal pavements are : 

Asphalt ( sheet and block). Stone Block (cobble, Belgian and 
granite). Wood Block, Brick, and Macadam. 

187. Describe the characteristics of a first class pavement for 
use in the city. 

A good pavement should be impervious, hard, durable, noiseless 
and clean. It should afford a good foothold for horses, be adapted 
to all grades, and all classes of traffic. It should be cheap and easy 
to repair. 



188. What are the advantages and disadvantages of principal 
kinds of pavements in use in the city? 

Stone block pavements are durable, adapted to heavy traffic and 
steep grades, but they are not clean, are noisy, expensive and diffi- 
cult to keep in good repair. 



132 

Macadam pavements are cheap, afford a good foothold, adapted to 
light traffic, but they are dusty and muddy, difficult to keep in order 
and costly to maintain. 

Wood pavements are cheap, fairly clean, not noisy, afford good 
foothold; but may become slippery, are liable to swell and not easily 
repaired. They are also considered unsanitary. 

Brick pavements are cheap, hygienic, clean, afford good foothold, 
but are liable to crack and are not durable. 

Asphalt pavements are cheap, clean, noiseless and hygienic, but 
are not adapted to steep grades. They are liable to swell with heat, 
and are injured by fire and excessive amount of water. 

189. What are the minimum and maximum allowable grades 
(a) for granite block pavement? (h) for asphalt pavement? (c) 
wood? (d) macadam? 

Minimum Maximum 

Grade. Grade. 

(a) Granite block 1-5% 10% and over 

(h) Asphalt 0.5% 2i% 

(c) Wood 0.7% 5% 

(d) Macadam 1.0% 5% 

Grades outside of these limits are, however, occasionally em- 
ployed. 

190. Describe the steps of construction of a first class pave- 
ment and street to take the place of a common dirt road. 

The road is first surveyed and cross sectioned, profiles prepared 
and grades (longitudinally and transversely) established. 

The cross section is planned, showing the dimensions and char- 
acter of the pavement and foundation. 

The road is staked out, grade stakes being set at centre, curbs, 
house lines and slopes, with depth of cut or fill indicated. 

The excavation for both curb and roadway is then made to sub- 
grade. The bottom is drained, flushed, tamped, freed of all poor 
■material (which is replaced with good soil or sand), and brought to 
an even surface parallel to the finished paving. The curbs should 
then be set. 

Upon the subgrade a layer of concrete is spread for the founda- 
tion, having its top surface parallel to finished pavement. 

Upon the concrete is- spread a cushion layer of sand or a binder 
layer of asphalt and stone, depending upon the kind of covering to 
be used. 

Upon this the final and finishing layer of blocks or asphalt 
is laid. 



133 

The construction of the sidewalks proceeds at the same time and 
in substantially the same order. 

191. Describe the construction of a first class brick pavement. - 

The bricks should be of the best quality paving brick, annealed 
and 2 J in. x 4 in. x 8 in. in size. 

The street should be excavated to subgrade, all objectionable 
material removed and replaced by firm soil or sand, and the bottom 
watered and rolled, so that it will be parallel to the finished surface. 

Upon this a layer of gravel and sand or concrete and sand is 
spread for foundation and cushion course. 

The bricks are laid on the prepared bed of sand. They should 
be laid on edge at right angles to the axis of the street and break 
joints by 3 in. or more. No broken bricks should be permitted, ex^ 
cept at closing points. 

Before closing they should be compressed by iron bars and then 
keyed by close fitting bricks. After 25 or 30 feet of paving are 
completed, the bricks should be rammed with 50-lb. rammers and 
all low bricks removed and properly replaced. 

The joints are then filled with sand, cement or paving pitch, 
and a layer of i in. of dry sand spread over the entire surface. 

192. State the essential points of a first-class stone block pave- 
ment. 

1. Quality of the stones. — They should not be too hard, not 
capable of taking any polish and should afford good foothold for 
horses. 

2. Size. — Depth should be about 7 in., width not more than 4 in., 
length 9-12 in. They should be well squared. 

3. Foundation. — Should be constructed of hydraulic cement con- 
crete, 4 in. to 9 in. thick, depending upon the character of the 
traffic. 

4. Cushion course. — | in., sand, clean, dry and free from pebbles, 
should be spread over the concrete. 

5. Laying. — Should start at the sides and proceed toward the 
center and the whole keyed tightly. Joints should be broken and 
as narrow as possible. Blocks must be well rammed and low blocks 
removed and properly replaced. 

6. Joints should be filled with paving pitch and gravel and a 
layer of sand should finally be spread over the blocks. 

7. Blocks should be laid in. parallel courses at right angles to 
axis of street. 

8. At intersections the blocks should be laid diagonally or as 
usually called in the "Herring-bone" fashion. 



134 

193. State all the points to be observed in laying an asphalt pave- 
ment over an old cobblestone pavement. 

The surface of old pavement should be thoroughly cleaned by 
sweeping with stiff brooms until all dirt, etc., has been removed 
from the surface and from the joints to a depth of about 1 inch. 

The surface is then evened up and brought parallel to the fin- 
ished grade by excavation if necessary, all depressions being filled 
with binder or concrete. Upon the blocks thus prepared a binder 
course is laid consisting of paving pitch and l^-in. broken stone, 1 
gallon to the yard. The surface of the binder is made parallel to the 
finished surface. The stone used in the binder should be heated. 
The wearing surface of asphalt is then laid and rolled upon the 
binder to the required thickness, and is covered with a thin coating 
of hydraulic cement. 



194. State all the essential points to be observed in preparing 
for and laying a Telford macadam road. 

The foundation must be well drained, compacted and brought to 
a true, even surface parallel to finished pavement. Upon the surface 
thus prepared a layer of 8-in. stone is set by hand. A layer of 
broken stone (size less than 3 in.) is then spread evenly and rolled. 
Upon this is spread a layer of sand one-half inch thick and the 
rolling continued. A 4-in. layer of 2-in. stone or less is now placed 
and covered with a layer of sand. The final coat is a layer of clean, 
sharp sand, well watered and rolled. Macadam roads are con- 
structed in substantially the same manner, except that the bottom 
course of 8-in. stone is replaced by broken stone. 



195. (a) What are the principal requirements in relaying asphalt 
pavements ? 

(h) In relaying block pavements? 

(a) In relaying asphalt pavements the sub-grade must be 
brought to a true surface well rammed and 'free from all objection- 
able matter. 

The foundation course of blocks or concrete must be carefully 
laid and bonded with the adjoining portions of the old foundation. 
The binder is then put on. It should also be well bonded with the 
adjacent portion of the old binder. In joining the old work with 
the new, the old must be cleaned and stripped of disintegrated or 
loose portions and in the case of concrete thoroughly wetted. 

The wearing surface is then laid and well tamped with hot irons 
where it joins the old work. 



135 

The new surface is thoroughly rolled until it presents a uniform 
appearance with the old. 

In relaying block pavements the surface at sub-grade, as well 
as the concrete foundation and cushion coat, should be brought true 
and well tamped, so that when the blocks are rammed they will be 
firm and present an even surface without ruts or depressions. Sand 
must be used to adjust sub-grade when necessary. The blocks 
should fit properly and not work loose, and must be well bonded' 
into the old pavement. The joints are then filled with pitch andl 
gravel and a layer of sand spread over the new work. 



196. Is an asphalt pavement injured by w^ater standing upon rt„ 
and, if so, how does it deteriorate? 

Yes. Asphalt pavements are disintegrated by standing waters 
This is most apparent in gutters and portions of pavement adjacent 
to fountain overflows. Rain and sprinkling does not affect the 
pavement if the water is quickly removed by evaporation or drainage. 



197. (a) Wliat is the least grade that is desirable for the gutters-- 
of a street ? 

(h) Where the grade between two intersections is too flat, by 
what expedient may better grades be obtained without disturbing, 
the cross-streets? 

(a.) The least gutter grade is about i%. 

(h.) Accommodation summits are put at the center of the main 
streets, thus giving them a slight fall towards the crossings and 
causing the water to flow in both directions from the summit. 



198. Give sketches showing three types of pavements. 



.1 



? Aspha/t y^Pavingr ^ 



J"San£^or /^"Aspha/i-Binc^en^ ^ 



Curb 



t^ 



3--i \ ^ concrete 



■Jd' 



136 



CobbleSfvne 



amn 






'Bluesfone Curb 






)<-5-> 



5/afeyvi^/A 



Ccrrcrete 




l^:~3ivne Blocks 5" 
" Oraye/ 6c Sana/ 



199. What are the important principles that should be followed 
in the design and construction of sewers ? 

The sewer should be perfectly tight throughout its entire length 
to prevent leakage. 

It should have a continuous fall, so that the flow will be uniform 
and also to avoid any tendency to deposit at particular points. 

The sewers should be well ventilated, and none of the gases 
should be permitted to reach the buildings connected to them. 

Means for inspection, cleaning and flushing the sewers must be 
provided. 

The size and form should be properly proportioned, so that there 
will never be a too low velocity to cause deposition of suspended 
matter or too high a velocity to cause "scour." 

The size should be ample to take care of the maximum flow, so 
that there will be no danger of back flow into the cellars or streets. 



200. How would you measure the quantity of water flowing in a 
sewer ? 

The quantity of sewage carried depends upon: 

The area of the sewage cross-section = A. 

The wetted perimeter ^ p; A -^ y ^ v. 

The slope or grade of the sewer = 5. 

The condition of the interior surface. 

These data can readily be obtained and substituted in the Chezy 
formula, Q =. c sj r s, which gives the discharge at once or the 
■quantity can be taken directly from tables or diagrams prepared for 
the purpose with the above factors as arguments. 



137 



The velocity in the sewer may be measured directly by means of 
a float or a current meter, and the flow obtained by multiplying the 
velocity by the area of the sewage cross-section. 

In large sewers temporary bulkheads and weirs may be con- 
structed, over which the flow passes and the discharge obtained by 
the weir formula. 

201. When is the velocity greatest in a sewer — when it is running 
full or half full, or how is it ? 

The velocity with respect to size depends upon the hydraulic 
mean radius, which is the ratio of the sewage cross-section to the 
wetted perimeter. In circular sewers this radius is the same for a 
flow full or half full. The velocity is therefore the same. In other 
sewers the velocity will depend upon the form of cross-section. 

202. What is the least allowable velocity of flow in sewers, and 
why? 

The velocity should not, in any case, be less than 2 feet per 
second in order to prevent the deposit of solid matter and conse- 
quent clogging of the sewer. 

In sewers of very small diameters a greater minimum velocity 
(about 3 ft. per sec.) is required. 



203. What is the minimum grade for 6-in., 8-in., 12-in. 
sewers, etc. ? 

Patton recommends the following : 

For 6-in. sewers, grade should not be less than 1 in 60 



12 
15 

18 
24 
30 
36 

42 

48 



1 in 90 
1 in 200 
1 in 250 
1 in 300 
1 in 400 
1 in 500 
1 in 600 
1 in 700 
1 in 800 



204. For what rate of rainfall should sewers in New York City 
be designed? What proportion of this is assumed as reaching the 
sewer? Is it a. constant, and show if you can how this is introduced 
in formulas for diameter of sewers? 

The rate of rainfall in the vicinity of Xew York is taken at 1 in. 
per hour. One-half of this is usually considered as reaching 



138 



the sewer, but in paved streets 75% is not an unreasonable figure, 
and where the slope is very steep and rain of long duration 90% 
may reach the sewer. 

The rate and proportion of rainfall reaching the sewer are fac- 
tors in determining the discharge for any given drainage area and 
are introduced as y and c. in the formula ^ = c y^\/^ A^. 

The formula for the diameters of sewers involves the quantity 
Q, and therefore y and c. 



205. Show method of calculating sizes of outfall and lateral 
sewers, in the "separate system." 

For calculating the sizes of sewers, tables or diagrams based 
upon the Kutter formula are commonly used. 

The outfall sewer generally carries the flow for a large tributary 
population, the amount of flow being equal to the water consump- 
tion. One-half the total may be taken as discharging in 8 hours. 
The discharge per second is thus obtained. 

The grade of the sewer or the velocity of flow may be assumed 
and the diameter corresponding to the assumed slope and the com- 
puted discharge is obtained directly from the tables or diagrams. 
If the sewer is to be oval its dimensions may be computed so as to 
give an equivalent flow to that of the circular sewer selected. 

Lateral sewers are computed in substantially the same manner, 
the discharges used being dependent upon the population tributary 
to them. 



206. Having a rainfall of 2 in. per hour in a well-paved, com- 
pactly built city, what size circular-pipe sewer having a fall of 2 
ft. in 100 would be necessary to carry ofl the water from an area 
of 20 acres, assuming that all rainfall reaches the sewer? Show 
calculation or describe it; if you would use tables such as you 
would expect to have in your office, state just what the tables are, 
where they would be found, how you would use them. 

The quantity of water reaching the sewer is calculated from the 
rate of rainfall and number of acres. 

One inch of rainfall = 1 cu. ft. per sec. per acre. For 2 in. 
rainfall and an area of 20 acres, the discharge is 2 X 20 = 40 cu. ft. 
per sec, which the sewer must take. 

To find the diameter, use a table giving mean velocities of flow 
for various slopes. With a slope of 2 ft. per 100 the diameter 
should be such that area of sewer section X "the velocity = 40 cu. ft. 
per sec. 



139 

On inspecting Table, p. 279c, Trautwine, we note that a 2-ft. 
sewer is too small and a 3-ft. sewer too large. Taking a 2.5-ft. 

2 5^ 
sewer, we find its hydraulic radius = i X 2.5 = 0.6+. Area = — 

X 7r=. 1.56 X 3.1416 = 4.9 sq. ft. 

[ V = velocity, in feet per second. 

I r = hydraulic radius. 

Use Formula F = C V s. j ^ _ ^^jj ^.^,^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^_ 

I n = coefficient of roughness. 

Table, p. 275, Trautwine, gives values of C for values of r. 
For a 2.5-ft. sewer, C == 76 (n = .015), giving 7 = 76 V^ X -02 = 
.11 X "^^ = 8.3 ft. per sec. 

The area being about 5 sq. ft., the discharge will be somewhat 
over 40 cu. ft. per sec. The velocity is very high and special pre- 
cautions must be taken to prevent wear of interior of sewer. 

207. Would the sewer run full or partly full? 

If left with you to decide, would you make this sewer a pipe 
sewer or an oval brick sewer? Why? 

Under ordinary conditions the sewer would run partly full, 
because the total rainfall does not reach the sewer at once, as has 
been assumed in the computation. Also the rate of 2 in. per hour 
is very large and will not be reached during ordinary storms. 

An oval brick sewer is preferable. During dry weather the flow 
is slight, and the oval shape permits a sufficiently high velocity to 
prevent deposits. 

208. Does a sewer built to take the rainfall from 1 000 acres 
have to be ten times the size of one draining 100 acres, and give 
reasons ? 

No. In the formula the diameter varies as the 2/5ths power of 
the discharge, the discharge itself varying as the (Area) f. The 
relation between the size of the sewer and the area drained is thus 
not a direct one. 

209. Calculate the diameter of a sewer required to carry off 1 in. 
of rain per hr. from 100 acres of land, the grade being 1 in 
100. Assume the formula 






in which 

^ ^ Cu. ft. discharged per sec. 
L = Length of sewer, in feet. 
H = Fall in feet. 
D = Diameter, in feet. 



140 

1 in. per hr. = 1 cii. ft. per sec. per acre. 
For 100 acres Q = 100 cu. ft. per sec. 

5 



\l 1.5 



100 
1.0 



An 18-in. sewer should be used. 



= 1.46 feet. 



210. If a sewer of known dimensions was to be replaced by two 
smaller sewers of same grade and capacity, how would you obtain 
dimensions of same? 

Each smaller sewer would have to take care of half the discharge 
of the original sewer. 

Using the new discharge and the same grade select from appro- 
priate tables the diameters which give the discharge, or apply the 
new discharge in the formula and compute the diameter. 

211. State what is understood by the separate and by the com- 
iDined system of sewerage and give as you understand them the 
reasons why one or the other would be best to use in any case. 

In the separate system the house drainage is carried in one sys- 
tem of sewers and the rain water in another, while in the combined 
system both sewage and storm water discharge through the same 
set of channels. 

Where the sewage does not have to be purified before discharg- 
ing the combined system is more economical, but where purification 
must be resorted to it is necessary to have the separate system to 
reduce the quantity treated at the purification plant. In any city 
the selection of one system or the other will depend upon the local 
conditions and the amount of money available. 

212. Give a sketch showing a cross section of a large brick sewer 
with dimensions, which is to be built across a piece of soft ground. 




141 



213. When would j^ou use the egg-shaped section for sewers? 

Egg-shaped sections are used in the combined system where the 
sewers are designed to carry both sewage and storm water. The 
smaller section at the bottom gives a higher velocity over other 
forms when the flow is small and thus prevents deposition of sedi- 
ment during dry weather flow. 



214. Sketch an oval sewer, i. e., egg-shaped, and give radii of all 
arcs in terms of the radius of the arch. 




215. What is the largest size of vitrified .pipe sewer in use ? De- 
scribe the precautions for laying them so as to secure the freest flow 
in a sewer of small descent. 



Thirty-six inch are the largest vitrified pipes used. The pipe 
should be laid to a uniform grade, containing no irregularities or 
depressions. The laying of the pipe is begun at down-stream end 
of the line. The pipe is laid on a proper foundation with the hub 
end facing up stream. The spigot end of each successive pipe is 
fitted into the hub already set to line and grade, and the joint thor- 
oughly filled with cement mortar. The operation of laying is care- 
fully made so that the invert will be smooth and true. The refilling 
of the trench must be done in a careful and thorough manner to 
prevent any undue strain or jar on the pipes. 

If expense permits, a foundation of planks or concrete will add 
to the service and life of the sewer. 



142 



216. What is a catch basin, and what is its use and locality? 
Sketch one adapted for use in the city. 

A catch basin is a well or chamber designed to receive storm 
water or surface drainage before the latter enters the sewer, its 
object being to catch the solid matter, etc., washed in from the sur- 
face. It is located usually at or near street corners or curb lines. 




Jil 



' 'WRubbie Masonry In , . ... 
Cement or Concrete/, 



-^ 217. What is a manhole and what is its use? 
show construction. 



Sketch one and 



A manhole is a shaft, usually masonry, leading into a sewer 
from the street surface. . It is large enough to permit access to 
sewer for purposes of examination and cleaning and also provides 
means of ventilation. (See sketch, p. 143.) 



218. How frequently should catch basins be placed along a 
street, and what rule governs this ? How* frequently should man- 
holes be placed? 

Catch basins should be placed at all low points in the street 
where considerable water is apt to collect. On long grades catch 
basins are placed at every street intersection where the grade of 
the intersecting streets permit. 

Manholes should be placed every 100 ft. for small sewers; for 
large sewers this distance may be increased from 200 to 500, depend- 
ing upon their size. They should be frequent enough to permit 
cleaning and afford proper ventilation for the sewers. 



143 




Vertical Section 
through Straight Manhole. 



144 



AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. ' 

Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocketbook. 

Patton's Civil Engineering. 

Merriman's Hydraulics. 

Eanning's Water Supply. 

Baker's Masonry. 

Byrne's Highway Construction. 

Bryne's Inspector's Pocketbook. 

Hoag on Dock Department of New York City {Proceedings 

Municipal Engineers, March, 1905.) 
Reports — Commission on Additional Water Supply. 
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocketbook. 
Johnson — Theory and Practice of Surveying. 
Pence & Ketchum — Surveying Manual. 
Wegmann — High Masonry Dams. 

Wegmann — History of Water Supply of New York City. 
Catalogue — Associated Expanded Metal Cos. 
Buel & Hill — Beinforced Concrete Construction. 
StaufPer's Modern Tunnel Practice. 
Burr's Theory of the Arch. 
Folwell's Sewerage, Etc. 



APPENDIX. 



SOME rSKFUL KXCIXKKKIXi J FOliMI^LAS. 



Note. — Tlie collection of fonmilns iiichi<lc(l in this volnmc is 
not intended to be complete in any sense, bnt it contains a fairly 
comprehensive list of the more comm6n engineering' formulas witli 
which candidates onjiht to he familiar, and it will serve as a rea<ly 
reference to th(^s<' })i'eparinj»' themselves for examinations. 

For T'nifonn "Motion : 

V =z velocity in feet l)er second. 
s = space in feet passed o\'»'f. 
t =^ time in seconds. 

For Falling- F.odies : 

r :=-- 7 / ^ :;-2.1(W -: y'~:ryTr . S.0-2 ^' k = 

•1 '1 <j 



__ 1* /?. 



y _ \'2 h _ V li' __--^ h 

ij ~" \i ir "~ 4.01 " V ' 



r =z velocity in feet at the end of t seconds. 

(J = acceleration dne to uravity = :\'2.\V> i'^ yv see. per sec 

h ^= space in feet passed oxer in t seconds. 

F = .V(i .1/" = -' 

.'/ 



Work or Eneiuy =.- F s :-^ ^ M 



Momentnm — Jf 

or Eneig- 
(ill foot-lbs.) 

rower — 

(in foot-lbs. per sec.) 
F = force in lbs. 
Jf = mass. 
a = acceleration. 



-^ g 



n 



W = weight in pounds. 
V = velocity in feet i)er second. 
t = time in seconds, 
r/ = 32.16. 



Anovular Velocity 





^-yr 




Centrifugal Force : 






(in lbs.) 






f z 


= ^''- = .0, 


)o;ui w 



A = angular velocity per second. 

V = linear velocity of center of gravity of body in feet per sec. 
]{ = radius in feet of curved path. 

7t = 3.1416. 

JV = number of revolutions per minute. 
W = weight of revolving body in pounds. 

g = 32.16. 

Pressure of Water . 

p = w h = .434 7i lbs. per sq. in. = 62..") h lbs. per sq. ft. 
71 = 2.31 p. 

7 2 

P = w A d = — — on rectangular vertical surfaces (one foot 

wide.) 

p = intensity of pressure. 
P = total pressure in pounds. 
A = area of submerged surface. 
d = head on center of gravity. 
li = total depth of water in feet. 
w = weight per unit of water. 

Center of Pressure : 

When not submerged = | of depth below surface. 

]l 3 /, 3 

" submerged = | -^ -^^. 

h^ = head on bottom of submerged surface.^ 
]i.^ -— head on top of submerged surface. 



Plow of Water: 






in 

t' = velocity in feet per second. 
y = 32.16. 
h = head in feet. 
A z= area in sc^uare feet. 
() =. theoretical dischariije in cubic feet per second. 

Flow tJirouirh Orifices: 

Q = c A V =--. c A V'-i y'l^- 
<■ == O.dO to O.IK) = constant dei)ending upon conditions of flow. 

Flow over AVeirs: 

AVhen there is no velocity of api)roach, 

3 

Q = ;{.33 h H^ (no end contractions). 

= 3.33 (b — 0.2H)H^ (end contractions.) 
h =. length of weir. 
H = head on crest. 

Q = discharge in cubic feet per second. 
Jf h = head causing the velocity of approacli, 

thenQ = ?>.:V.\ h [{]f + A)^ — /i^] (no end contractions). 

Q = 3.33(6— 0.2 H) [(/f + h)^ — A^] (witli end contractions). 

Flow through short ])ipes (length =: 3 diameters): 
Q = c A r; c = O.SO ±.. 
Flow through Pii)es: 



2,/h "iflQ 



h ' 



Q = 0.7sr,4 d- ' — -.y d = 0.479 -. f 

Q = discharge in cubic feet i)er second. 
/ = coefficient of friction = 0.02 (trial value). 
I = length of pipe in feet. 
d =■ diameter in feet. 

For open ciiannels on very long ])ipes: 

Q = A V = A c V I' s (Chezy formula), 
l.Sll ^^ ^.. 0.00281 

in whic-li r = '1 ^ 4^ (Ki^tter's for- 

1 + -^ / 41.05 + i^_0211\ "^"^^)' 

V r\ s J 

A = cross-section area of c(mduit, etc., in square feet. 
c = empirical constant. 



IV 

r = mean hydraulic radius, 

^- == sine of ^^lopo of whUt surface. 

71 = constant 0.01 to O.O^i, dei)cnding on roughness of surface. 

High Masonry Dams: 
Thrust = ^ ir Jr. 
Moment of thrust = i 'tc li^. 
Moment of resistance to sliding = Wf. 
Moment of resistance to overturning = W f. 
w = weight per cubic foot of water. 
h = depth of water in feet. 

W = total weight of dani above the liorizontal plane considered. 
/ = coetticient of friction of masonry on masonry. 
C = distance from center of gravity to center of pressure at the 
horizontal plane in (piestion. 

I'nit Pressure : 

lor unilorm loads, ^/ = 

/r(X — f7) 2 W 

1 or maximum pressure, /> =^ — - , ^= -- . 

To find nundjer of small pipes of diameter d to replace single 
pipe of diameter i>, 

. ^o.= r^. 

liun-OlT: 

Q = discharge in cubic feet per second, 
^' = slope of drainage area in feet p<'r thousand. 
^i 3= drainage area in acres. 

Culvert Opening: 

A = area of opening in square feet. 

(• =;z constant {^ to 1.0. (h'pending uj)oh topography). 
M = drainage area in acres. 

Strength of Materials: 

'^ = .1 -'-l ^-.-Ae 

S = unit stress, in j)oun(ls per scjuare inch. 

I* =z total stress, in pounds. 



A = area of cross-section, in square inches. 

.s = elongation per inch. 

e :=^ total elonijation. in inches. 

I = l('!iofth. in inches. 
E — cocfhcicnt of elasticity. 



Bean 



is: 



T =z A i'^ M = = '^ ^"^ rcctanp:nlar heams. 

'' (■ ('» 

/= moment of inertia. 

/• -- radius of gyration. 

-ir = moment of resistance of heam. 

S = horizontal unit stress. 

c = distance of outermost fiber to neutral axis. 

h = width of beam. 

(1 = dei)th of beam. 

Columns: 

r- — '--jr 

p = unit stress, in pounds per square inch. 

« " ultimate strength in compression. 

I z= length of column. 

/• = least radius of gyration. 

(J = empirical constant. 

Thickness of rii)e: 

P r> = 2 .U 

]' = unit pressure, pounds per square inch. 
7) = diameter of pipe, in inches. 

,v HZ working stress, in poimds per square inch. 

/ = thickness of pipe, in inches. 

Arch: 

Trial depth of keystone, iji feet = ^ — -_- i-^L_- -|- 0.2 (Traiitwinp). 

AVidth of a1)utment at sjiringing 

/• — radius of arch, in feet. 
'/•' = rise of arch, in feet. 
s — span of arch, in feet. 



. '^L 


• + 4 .s 




4 


r 


Hi + - 



VI 

Pressure Against Eetaining Wall: 
P = 0.643 W 

P == total pressure against wall. 
}y = weight oi" prism of earth within plane of maximum thrust. 

Piles: 

^ = r+i 

X = safe load, in pounds. 

?/• = weight of hammer, in pounds. 

h = fall, in feet. 

s -= average settlement of last blows, in inches. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES. 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER 
TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER. 

Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 

Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN, and INSPECTOR. 



VOL. III. PART I. 
DRAFTSMAN and DRAFTSMAN'S HELPER. 



INDEX 

Previous Examination j?;;^/^^^^^^^^^^ ^ . 

Paprrq 1 Topographical Draftsman, pp. 7-16. 

[ Structural Steel Draftsman, pp. 17-24. 

Typical Questions J ?^^^^^"^^"'^ ^,^1^^'j, ^' '-^5; 

and Answers Topographical Draftsman, Q. 21-70. 
and answers Structural Steel Draftsman, Q. 71-120. 



NEW YORK : 

The Engineering News Publishing Company. 

1 906. 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engikeebing News Publishing Company. 



J. F. TA PLEY Co. 

BOOK MANUFACTURERS 

N E W YOR K 



PEEFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers," which have been in- 
cluded in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical 
in wording with those actually given at the examinations, as copies 
of the original papers are not readily procurable, but they do embody 
the substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," great 
care has been taken to make the answers conform with the best 
modern practice. Reasonable variance of opinion may exist as to 
what is the best answer, owing to differences in interpretation of 
the question and in education and experience, but it is sufficient to 
say that the answers given are based on such recognized authorities 
as Peinhardt's "Technic of Mechanical Drafting," Pence and 
Ketchum's "Surveying Manual," Prof. Burr's books on Bridge De- 
sign, and Gillespie's "Surveying." 

In order to perpetuate the value of the book, blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing 
for the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions 
and Answers" have been interleaved to provide space for notes, 
sketches, and additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS* 



DKAFTSMAN'S HELPEK. 

Salary, $600 to $1,200. 



1. What do you understand to be the duties of junior assistant 
draftsman ? 

2. How are original drawings reproduced so that various copies 
may be sent to contractors, or used on construction? 

3. What kinds of materials would the following colors indicate 
on drawings: (a) blue gray, (h) red, (c) purple, (d) blue, (e) slate, 
(f) light blue, (g) yellow? 

4. How many general drawings are needed in ordinary building 
work, and what are they? 

5. What scale is used for (a) general drawings; (h) detail draw- 
ings for school buildings? 

6. How do the sides of tracing cloth differ? What is the advan- 
tage of using each side as compared to the other? 

7. After having to erase ink on tracing cloth, how can you pre- 
vent the new ink from running? 

8. How is the blue print made from a tracing? 

9. What is a "T" square and how is it used? 

10. Describe the two "triangles" most used and how lines per- 
pendicular to the drawing board- can be ruled with them. 

11. Why should ink on the outside of a right line ruling pen be 
wiped away? What is the best way of getting ink on a right line 
ruling pen? 

12 and 13. Draw neatly a column with ornamental cap and base. 

14 and 15. Reproduce in your best style lettering: Front Eleva- 
tion, Grammar School No. 35, Scale i in. to 1 ft. 

Arithmetic. 

1. How many pieces of tracing cloth 24 in. by 36 in. can be cut 
from a roll, 60 in. wide, and 24 ft. long? How many from a roll, 
48 in. wide and 24 ft. long ? 

2. How many brick, allowing 21 to a cubic foot, are in a brick 
wall 20 in. thick, 21 ft. high and 46 ft. long? 

3. Multiply 231 by 672 and take 23^% of the product. 

4. Add 42 ft. 6 in., 16 ft. 2 in. and 15 ft. 3 in. 



5 

DKAFTSMAN'S HELPER 



Technical. 

1. What do you understand to be the duties of assistant drafts- 
man? 

2. What scale is usual for (a) general drawings; (h) detail draw- 
ings for school buildings? 

3. Name all the general plans necessary to show the character of 
construction of a steel frame building. 

4. What colors are used to indicate the following materials: 
(a) iron, (h) wood, (c) plaster, (d) concrete, (e) granite, (J) fire 
brick, (g) bronze and copper, (h) fire-proofing? 

5. How are contemplated alterations of an existing building 
shown on plans ? 

6. How are water colors mixed and applied to secure uniform 
tints and neat appearance? 

7. Show by sketches, form and dimensions of a cast-iron lintel 
for an opening 4 ft. 6 in. wide. 

8. Explain the following terms as used in carpentry specifica- 
tions: (a) Centers (for mason); (h) furring; (c) wedging; (d) 
trim. 

9. Explain the following terms used in masonry specifications: 
(a) Flemish bond, (h) stone template, (c) wash (of sills), (d) drip 
(of cornice). 

10. (a) What is a column; (5) a pilaster? 

11. Draw neatly a column with ornamental cap and base. 

12. Draw neatly a design for an ornamental iron railing for a 
balcony. 

13. Draw neatly two arched windows, one beyond the other, 
divided at an angle of 45°, showing perspective. 

14 and 15. Arrange and complete enough letters to show skill at 
lettering the following: "Front Elevation, Grammar School 35, De- 
partment of Education, City of Xew York, Scale ^ in. to 1 ft." 

Arithmetic. 

1. Subtract 196 ft. 9i in. from 274 ft. 7i in. 

2. Cubic measure. 

3. Multiplication. • 

4. Addition. 



DRAFTSMAN'S HELPER. 



Technical. 
(Sketches or drawings may be done in ink or pencil). 

1. Define and illustrate by sketches of a table (a) plan, (h) eleva- 
tion, (c) middle vertical section. 

2. Make a neat tracing of these sketches. 

3. Draw neatly a box 10 ft. long, 4 ft. high and 6 ft. wide in 
perspective with one corner toward you. 

4. What is the method of stretching drawing paper preparatory 
to using colors? How should colors be applied? 

5. (a) How is tracing cloth treated to prevent drawing ink from 
running? (h) Which side of tracing cloth should be used? 

6. How are blue-prints made? 

7. Show three different methods of indicating the scale of a 
drawing and state which is best, with reasons. 

8. How long a piece of drawing paper will be required for a map 
of a small park 430 by 250 ft. to a scale of 1 in. equals 50 ft. ? 

9. (a) What is the difference between an inch and a tenth of a 
foot? (Z>) Between 3 sq. ft. and 3 ft. square? 

10 and 11. Indicate by quickly made but neat drawings: (a) a 
wooden beam, (h) concrete, (c) rock-faced masonry, (d) random 
coursed masonry, (e) a Corinthian column cap, (f) a Doric colunm 
cap, (g) B. frieze. 

12. What colors are used to indicate (a) wood, (h) concrete, (c) 
common brick, (d) iron work, (e) earth. 

13. Describe two ways of laying off an angle, one of which is the 
most accurate way. Give reasons why it is so. 

14 and 15. Draw neatly the following in your best style: ABC 
abc 123 (in any quick, plain style); EGM egm 456 (in substantial 
block or Roman style); OQS oqs 789 (in round writing or Gothic 
style). 

Arithmetic. 

1. Add 29 ft. 7i in., 11 ft. | in., 7 ft. i in., 6 ft. 9f in., and 17 ft, 
llA in. 

2. Reduce 2 463| in. to feet and decimals of a foot. 

3. Subtract from the answer of (2) 122.6875 ft. and reduce the 
result to inches. 

4. How many cubic yards are there in a wall 207 ft. 6 in. long, 
S ft. thick, 12 ft. high at one end, and 6 ft. high at the other? 

5. What is the area of metal in a cast-iron column 8 in. outside 
diameter and 1 in. thick? 



TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAFTSMAN. 

Salary, $1,200 to $1,800. 



Technical. 

1. (a) What drawings does a topographical draftsman have to 
make? 

(Z;) Suppose there were notes of a closed survey of a field, how 
would he examine them as to their reasonable correctness? 

2. If errors are found in latitudes and departures (a) how would- 
tabular corrections be applied? (h) How can the amount and di- 
rection to be applied at the end of each course be determined 
graphically ? 

3. (a) If the course and length of one side be missing how can 
it be supplied? (h) Is any assumption made by doing this, and if 
so, what is it? 

4. (a) How many square chains (of 66 ft. per chain) are there 
in an acre? (h) How many square feet are there in an acre? 

5. How should a drawing of a survey be located on the paper? 

6. (a) When a transit survey of a street or other continuous sur- 
vey of considerable length, and with a number of angles in it, is to 
be plotted, what method should be pursued to avoid as far as pos- 
sible errors in plotting? (h) What is the most accurate method of 
laying off an angle on paper? 

7. Illustrate all the ways of indicating, either by description or 
otherwise, the scale to which a drawing is made. 

8. In a reverse curve, are there any trigonometrical lines com- 
mon to the two branches of the curve, and if so, what are they? 

9-10. Make a careful trigonometrical drawing about 2 in. square, 
in your best style, of a portion of a hill, containing two ravines or 
depressions approximately parallel, starting from nothing a little 
Lelow the top and reaching a considerable depth before debouching 
upon the plain below. A swelling ridge to occupy the space be- 
tween the ravines. All slopes to be represented by hachcres. 

11-12. Make a careful topographical drawing 2 in. square of a 
reservoir and dam, with wide stream above and below. 

13-14. Draw the same of a farm, with one-quarter in evergreen 
trees, one-quarter in hardwood trees; the rest showing buildings, 
orchard, meadows, etc. 



8 

15. Show your skill in lettering and arrangement by drawing a 
caption to a drawing as follows: 

"Map of a part of the Borough of The Bronx. 

March, 1902. 

Scale 100 ft. per inch.'' 

Arithmetic. 

"^ 1. Compute the areas of a hexagon of which the radius of the 
circumscribed circle is 11 ft. 

2. Extract the square root of the following number, 70913.078. 

3. Find the sum of 3f + 4i + 1 11-40 + 3 18-265 and express 
the fractional portion in decimals. 

4. A field is trapezoidal in shape with one end at right angles to 
the two parallel sides. The parallel sides are respectively 713 ft. 
and 1 619 ft. long, and the inclined end has a length of 1 278 ft. 
What is the area of the field? 



TOPOGEAPHICAL DRAFTSMAN. 

1. (a) What information should be furnished by a well prepared 
topographical map'^ (b) For what purposes are topographical maps 
used in this city? 

2. Describe how the area of a piece of land is determined by (a) 
the use of a planimeter; (h) by "double meridian distances." (c) 
What other method is used ? 

3. How should the scale to which a map is drawn be shown? 

4. In computing the parts of a triangle, how many different cases 
may arise; to which one may two correct answers be given, and 
under what conditions? 

5. A piece of property 500 ft. square shows elevations taken every 
100 ft. as follows : 

100—105—115—115—120—120 
105—115—120—120—130—120 
115—118—130—140—140—130 
115—120—125—130—130—120 
112—115—115—125—120—115 
118—112—110—118—110—110 

Plot this to approximate scale and show contours at 5-ft. inter- 
vals, beginning at elevation 100. 

6. Assuming that you are to plot a course running 1 060 ft. 'N. 16 ** 
40' W. Describe two ways of doing it, one of which must be ac- 
curate, and state why it is so. 

7 and 8. Show 10 000 ft. of a profile of center line of a sewer, 
with grade 0.25%, running under rough ground. Make vertical 
scale 1 in. equal 10 ft., horizontal scale 1 to 2,000. Show all neces- 
sary information. 

9. Make topographical drawings 2 in. square in your best style, 
with pen or pencil, of a country road on a hillside heavily wooded; 
show a bridge and small stream. Scale about 1 in. = 30 ft. 

10. Same for mill pond, showing dam and mill, and using con- 
tours. No special scale necessary. 

11. Same for precipitous bluff and ravine by hachures. 

12. Same for a small park, showing evergreen and deciduous trees. 

13. Draw neatly in your best style (with pen or pencil) the fol- 
lowing caption. Lay out the work carefully as to spacing and ar- 



10 

rangement and complete at least two letters of each line : 'IS/La^ of 
Stapleton and Vicinity, Borough of Richmond, City of New York, 
from Surveys made in 1903. Scale : 1 inch to 500 feet." 

Mathematics. 

Give all the figuring on the ruled sheets. 

1. Demonstrate that the side of an equilateral triangle inscribed 
in a circle is to the radius, as the square root of 3 is to unity. 

. / 2. Extract the square root of f|-|y ; give the answer in a decimal, 
correct to three places. 

^ 3. A walk 9 ft. wide surrounds a square garden, the area of the 
walk being | of an acre, what is the length of a side of the enclosed 
square ? 

4. A city lot in the form of a trapezoid costs $2 250 at 40 cents 
a square foot. If its parallel sides are 39 ft. and 57 ft., what is its 
length? 



11 

TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAFTSMAN. 

1. What are contour lines, what rules govern the use of same, 
and how may one contour line cross another? 

2. Describe the best method of plotting boundary lines of a 
survey. 

3. What can be said of a closed survey as to possible error ? How 
would you examine the surveying notes as to their correctness? 

4. How would you distribute the errors? 

6. What errors are allowed in country, railroad and city surveys ? 

6. Give the trigonom.etrical functions by diagram and state the 
relations between sine, cosine, tangent and secant, giving their 
equivalents. 

7. Draw a profile of a country road 1 000 ft. long with horizontal 
scale of V = 100' and vertical scale of 1'' = 10', giving proposed 
grade line, elevations and all features usually noted on a profile. 

8. In a square of 2 in. draw a pond with in- and out- going stream, 
marshy shore, and wooded small island. 

9. In a square of 2 in. draw farmhouses, with outhouses, corn- 
field, ploughed ground and wooded land. 

10. In a square of 2 in. draw sandy shore, with steep hills and 
ravines shown by contours, railroad, pine and oak trees. 

11. Draw a title as follows, using your best judgment as to the 
size of letters, spacing and general arrai:igement : "Topographical 
Map of the Borough of Queens of the Greater City of New York 
from surveys made in 1897, Scale 1 inch = 100 feet." 



Mathematics. 

1. If a side of a hexagon is 25 ft., what is the diameter of a circle 
having the same area as the hexagon? 

2. Divide 1092.304 by .00352 ; give square root of quotient. 

3. Get the value of the following: i of 7925 X I of .0052; give 
square root of product to 3 decimal places. 

4. A strip of land has two parallel sides, 785 and 1 979 ft.; dis- 
tance between sides is 75 ft.; what is the area? 



12 

TOPOGEAPHICAL DKAFTSMAJST. 
Note. — All sketches are to be neatly done with pen or pencil. 

1. Give the usual diagram showing the cosine, tangent, cotan- 
gent, secant, and cosecant of an angle, designating each by two 
different letters. 

2. State and describe briefly the different kinds of surveys neces- 
sary to furnish data for a topographical map. 

3. State three different methods of determining the area of a 
piece of land which has been plotted. 

4. Give the notes of a boundary survey of a piece of property; 
describe how you would plot them and show graphically how you 
would distribute an error of closure. 

5. (a) Why is it not best to use a protractor to plot such a sur- 
vey? (h) How would you look for a considerable error in angles in 
such notes? 

6. Describe a traverse table and its use. 

7. What form of notes would you require to enable you to plot 
an irregular shore line of a river or lake? 

8. Describe the method of plotting a course of a survey by 
chords. 

9. (a) Show by sketches two methods of showing the scale of a 
drawing 100 ft. to 1 in. (h) Show by sketch the method of indi- 
cating the points of the compass on a map. 

10. Draw a small topographical map, 2 in. square, of two small 
hills, with a brook with steep banks between, running out through 
a nearly level meadow; show contours. 

11. Same by use of hachures. 

12. Same of a river with marshy shore on one side and sandy 
shore, steep bank, wooded with several varieties of trees on the other. 

13. The same for part of a farm, with ploughed land, cultivated 
land, orchard and buildings. 

14 and 15. Show your skill in lettering by arranging the follow- 
ing title and finish at least four letters of each line: "Map of 
Blackwell's Island, Borough of Manhattan, Greater City of New 
York, from survey made in 1872. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in." 



13 

TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAFTSMAN. 

April 12, 1897. 

1. Describe fully and clearly what is meant by the term topog- 
raphy. 

2. Draw as well as you can, in ink, an example about 1 in. square 
of each of the following objects: (a) A pond or lake; (h) two 
hills with intervening valley; (c) a stream with a branch entering 
it; (d) marshy ground; (e) an orchard; (f) woods; (g) a common 
road with stone fences and a railroad crossing it. Place the letter 
indicating each over it. 

3. Draw in ink a complete profile of a street 1 000 ft. long, show- 
ing the natural ground, streets crossed, the grade line, with breaks, 
if any, all to be finished completely and thoroughly as it would be 
in an actual case, giving every figure and all information that should 
be shown. (Do this lengthwise of the sheet.) 

4. Notes have been handed you of a land survey and you are di- 
rected to compute the quantity and make an accurate map of same; 
give the form of table you would use, explain the meaning of the 
several quantities and how they are used. 

5. If the drawing mentioned in Question 4 is to be made on a 
large scale, state how you would distribute the errors in angles and 
measurements along the several angles and sides so as to make your 
drawing close. 

6. Suppose the property in question to be very valuable, how 
much error in line and angle would you consider to be consistent 
with careful field work ? 

7. Having the courses and distances of all the sides of a piece of 
ground but one, how can you supply the missing data ? 

8. In locating a survey upon a map, how should the north and 
south line be placed? 

9. In making a plot of a piece of ground (all errors of survey 
having been balanced), what is the best method of doing it to re- 
duce the error of plotting to a minimum? 

10. What is the best way of indicating a scale of a drawing 
upon it? 

11. Show by sketch the location of the sine, cosine, tangent, co- 
tangent, secant and cosecant of an angle of about 30°, giving refer- 
ence to each by letter. 

12. In a right-angle triangle, of which the base is (b), the ver- 
tical leg (a), and the hypothenuse (c), give the values of the sine, 
cosine, tangent and cotangent. 

13. In a very small triangle, which of these increase most in 
error as the angle increases? 



14 

14. Describe the several parts of a logarithm and how logarithms 
are used in making computations. 

15. A field has a side A B parallel to C D and the angles at A 
and C right angles. It is desired to divide it into two equal parts 
by a line parallel to A B. Give the distance on A C from A to the 
given line. 

TOPOGKAPHICAL DRAFTSMAN. 

August 10th, 1904. 

1. Whiat are "contours," "hachures"? Illustrate by hachures a 
ravine between two hills. 

2. Describe how a topographical survey for a water-shed would 
be made with transit and stadia. 

3. Give mathematical relations between sine, cosine, tangent, co- 
tangent and secant. 

4. Give a form of notes for running levels of the center line of a 
street at least 1 000 ft. long. 

5. Give a form of notes for a survey with transit and stadia* 
Explain same. 

6 to 7. From given bearings and lengths make a table for bal- 
ancing the survey and describe how the balancing is done and how 
area is computed in acres. Use the method of co-ordinates. Also 
explain why some values are additive and some are subtractive. 

8. Give the elevation of points 50 ft. apart; draw in contours at 
intervals of 5 ft. 

9. How do you find the area of a plot which is bounded on one 
side by an irregular shore line? 

10-13. In a space 6" by 4'' show the following standard topo- 
graphical signs: (a) A pond with a marsh on one side; (h) with 
a meadow adjacent; (c) ploughed land and cornfield; (d) the other 
shore sandy, with a bluff wooded with oak and pine. 

14-15. Correct, arrange and lay out the following title, finishing 
enough letters to show skill in lettering: Topographical map of 
the Borough of Queens, the Greater City of New York, from surveys 
made in 1904, scale _^^^^_. Indicate the scale to be used for 
such a map. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Extract the square root of 25.0|. 

2. Find the length of arc of 30° in a circle whose radius is 10 ft» 

3. Find area of above sector. 

4. Divide decimal fractions and multiply result. 

5. Find the area of triangle whose sides are 40', 30' and 60'. 



15 
TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAFTSMAN. 



Technical. 

October 31, 1905. 

1. How would you proceed to enlarge a map so as to be able to 
fill in additional details? 

2. How would you plot the survey of a line of considerable 
length with a number of angles, so as to avoid error in plotting the 
angles ? 

3. What notes should you receive in order t» plot a curve, such as 
a railroad, and how would you do it? 

4. (a) How many square chains are there in an acre? (h) How 
many square feet in an acre ? 

5. Describe the planimeter and its use. 

6. (a) What notes should you receive to enable you to locate an 
irregular shore line? (h) How would you compute the area of a 
piece of property bounded by an irregular shore line? 

7. Show a form of stadia notes and state what reductions have to 
be made in the office. 

8 to 12. Make a neat drawing in ink or pencil of a city block 
200 by 400 ft. to scale 50 ft. equals 1 in. Show one end with rocky 
cliff and sandy beach and shore line, the other end with city lots 
and several houses ; the main portion an old residence with grounds, 
outbuildings, driveway, pine and oak trees, a fruit orchard, garden 
and cornfield. 

13. Arrange the following caption and fill in the letters underlined 
in your best style, using at least three kinds of lettering: Topo- 
graphical map of Bronx Park, Borough of the Bronx, City of New 
York, from Surveys made in 1903, Scale 100 ft. to 1 in. 

Mathematics. 
Give all the figuring on the ruled sheets. 

1. Extract the square root of 4930.6271. 

2. What is the area of a triangle of which the sides are 50, 60 
and 70 ft.? 

3. Add 17 ft. m in., 4 ft. 7 in., 13.375 ft., 35i in., 16 ft. 9 in., 
and i ft. Express the result in feet and inches, and feet and deci- 
mals of a foot. 

4. A rectangular field is 5^ times as long as it is wide and con- 
tains 2i acres. What are the dimensions of the field ? 

5. What is the area of a roadway 60 ft. wide, of which the center 
line is a quarter circle with a radius of 500 ft. ? 



16 

PROMOTION EXAMmATION, DRAFTSMAN, 
AQUEDUCT COMMISSION. 



April 30, 1901. 

1. Age, experience, education. 

2. What is the most accurate method of plotting a survey and 
why? 

3. How would you test the accuracy of a closed survey? 

4. Draw a profile of a road 1 000 ft. long, and put thereon every- 
thing necessary to let a contract for grading. 

5. Draw to scale a typical section of a masonry dam 30 ft. high, 
and an elevation of same showing bonding of courses on front face. 

6. Draw a section of an earth dam 30 ft. high, illustrating the 
best construction. 

7. Show a section of such a dam where sheet-piling is used in 
the foundation, showing the sheet piling. 

8. Draw a section of a gate house on top of a dam, showing water 
inlets, and discharge pipes so arranged as to prevent leakage. 

9. What are shade lines used for in drawings and where is the 
light supposed to come from ? 

10. Does friction in a pipe depend upon its diameter or its section ; 
which ? 

11. To illustrate skill in drawing, sketch a pond in an area of 2 in. 
square, showing steep banks and some topography. 

12. Extract the square root of a number. 

13. Where is the center of pressure on a vertical dam 30 ft. high? 

14. How much is the pressure against a rectangular dam, with a 
vertical face 27 ft. 9 in. by 10 ft. 7 in.? 



17 

STRUCTURAL STEEL DRAFTSMAN. 

Salary, $1,200 to $1,800. 

1. (a) Wliat are the largest sections of I-beam, channel, and 
angle. rolled? (h) What the lightest weight 20-in. and 18-in. beams? 

2. Show by sketches the standard connection angle of a 15-in. 
and a 10-in. X-beam. 

3. Show the conventional signs for rivets and field holes. 

4. How close can |-in. rivets be driven (a) to each other, (h) 
to the edge of piece? 

5. What points must be considered in designing floor construction 
and connections? 

6. Same for columns? 

7. (a) What is the least proportion of depth a plate girder should 
have to the span? (h) In general, how should stiffeners be spaced? 

8. How would you secure transverse or wind bracing in a build- 
ing where cast-iron columns are used? 

9. Show by sketches a cast-iron column base for a 12-in. round 
column. 

10. Show by sketches the usual connection of a cast-iron column 
for a 15-in. I-beam. 

11. (a) What is the least bearing a beam should have on masonry ? 
(h) How are such beams arranged? 

12. What is the object of tie rods? Describe or show by sketch 
how they should be arranged for several beams of 20-in. span. 

13. Describe and illustrate two methods of fire-proofing of beams 
and columns. 

14. Design a stone footing of courses 2 ft. thick for a load, from 
a column of 250 tons, for ground which will take 4 tons per sq. ft. 
safely. 

15. In designing a roof, what are the loads to be considered and 
how are these determined? 

Mathematics. 
' 1. What is the area of metal of a round cast-iron column 1 in. 
thick and 11 in. outside diameter (three places of decimals) ? 
■•'2. Extract the square root of 911 to four places of decimals. 

3. A building 40 ft. by 108 ft. has a peaked roof with rise of 
15 ft. How many square yards of roofing felt is required to cover 
it (neglecting lap) ? 

4. Reduce the following measurements to feet and four decimals 
of a foot: IT ft. 11 in., 3.915 ft., 77.25' ft., 2 ft. 6f in., and 3 ft. 

^ 5. Reduce the same measurements as in Question 4 to inches and 
three decimal places of an inch. Add them and reduce the result to 
feet, inches and fractions of an inch. 



18 



STRUCTUEAL STEEL DRAFTSMAN. 

1. What unit stresses do you consider proper for (a) medium 
steel in built girders; (h) rolled beams used as floor beams? 

2. Same for cast iron (a) in tension; (h) in compression? 

3. Same for rivets in (a) shear; (/;) bearing? 

4. Discuss briefly the comparative merits of wrought-steel and 
cast-iron columns for structural purposes. 

5. What are the maximum moment and reactions of a girder 
20 ft. long with a concentrated load in center of 15 000 lb. and a 
uniform load of 2 000 lb. per lin. ft. of girder ? 

6. What is the required section of the lower chord of above 
girder when effective depth is 2 ft. and allowable tension per square 
inch as answered in Question 1 ? 

7. Determine spacing of rivets in chords near end support, show- 
ing method of calculation when web is -| in. thick, and strain al- 
lowed for rivets as per answer to Question 3. 

8. Make a free-hand sketch of stair string with ornamental rail- 
ing, showing newel. 

9. Make a free-hand sketch for detail of stair string connection 
at top and bottom of stairs. 

10 and 11. Determine strains (graphically and analytically) of 
roof truss shown below. 






.X. 




12. Show by sketch or describe a method of vault lighting by use 
of prisms, and state under what conditions they can be used. 

13. Make free-hand sketches of (a) a finial; (6) a gargoyle; (c) 
a corbel. 

14. Show by sketch a (a) Doric, and (6) an Ionic column. 

15. Make a free-hand sketch of a wrought-iron grille for a ticket- 
office window. 



19 
STKUCTUKAL STEEL DEAETSMAJSF. 



1903. 



1. In a casting, what is draft? How much is it proper to 
allow? What other points are to be observed in designing castings? 

2. Wliat is the safe and what the ultimate strength of a lap 
joint with 6 rivets staggered? 

3. How would you get the shear at any point in a beam loaded at 
3 points, and how would you obtain the maximum B. M. ? 

■Jr. How would you space rivets in a column, with reference to 
each other and to the edge of the plate? 

5. Sketch three types of bracing (wind) '. 

6. How should stiffeners be designed at the end of a plate girder? 

7. Make sketch for a steel (built up) column footing to trans- 
njit to masonry foundation a load of 200 tons. 

8. Sketch standard connection angles for 24-, 15- and 8-in. I- 

9 and 10. Given a roof truss with rise of ^ span. Span is 50 ft. 
Trusses 8 ft. apart ; total load over the whole surface 30 lb. per sq. ft. 
Design truss. 

11. Give a sketch and description of cantilever construction for 
foundation and also for fourth tier. 

12. Design a joint for a flange composed of 2-6'' by C by i'' L's 
and 1-14'' by i in. cover. 

13. What advantage has an 18-in. I of 55 lb. per foot over a 15-in. 
I of equal weight? If 15-in. I will carry the load, what is the ad- 

■ vantage in its use ? 

14. Make neat sketches for (a) cast-iron separator for 15-in. 
beam; (h) clevis; (c) sleeve nut; (d) turn buckle for l^-in. rod. 

15. Sketch section of column composed of (a) plates and angles; 
(l») plates and channels; (c) 6 segment Phoenix column; (d) 2 chan- 
nels and 1 -C -beam; (e) Z-bars and plate. 



20 

STEUCTUKAL STEEL DEAETSMA]^. 

1. How is the strength of a rivet computed; also about what con- 
stants would you adopt for steel rivets in such a computation? 

2. Would you adopt the same constants for field rivets as for 
shop driven, and what reasons can you give for your decision? 

3. Is there any rule, and if so what, (a) for the minimum and 
maximum distances between rivets in riveted floor beams or columns ; 
(h) for the minimum distance from the rivet hole to the edge of 
any piece? 

4. How is the strength of a rod having a screw thread on it cal- 
culated, and in what case can the full strength of the rod be con- 
sidered available? 

5. Suppose a beam supported at its extremities to carry three or 
more loads; describe the operation of finding (a) the shear at any 
point; (h) the maximum moment. 

6. Sketch carefully by cross-section, etc., (a) a bridge post made 
of four Z-bars and a plate; (h) show a bridge post made up of plates 
and angles. 

7. State how you would compute the necessary number, spacing 
and dimensions of stiifeners at the end of a plate girder. 

8. (a) What is the object of camber in a bridge truss? (Z>) State 
how you would provide the proper amount in any given case. 

9. In a plate girder made up of a web, cover plates and angles, 
state how you would determine the economical lengths of the plates 
where several thicknesses are used in each flange. 

10. State how you would compute the number of rivets required 
in any given length of the flanges of a plate girder. 

11. In a through-truss bridge, how are the stresses in the diagonals 
between the chords transmitted to the masonry at the ends? 

12. In making a working drawing for a casting, such as a bed- 
plate or other design of somewhat complicated form, what must be 
done to insure sound castings, in so far as 'the draughtsman can aid 
in so doing? 

13. What unit stresses would you assume as safe in the use of 
medium steel; (a) for a city bridge under very heavy traffic; (h) 
for a bridge for ordinary highway traffic; (c) for a roof truss? 

14. What is the best way for attaching horizontal diagonals to 
the upper chords of a truss? Give sketch. 

15. Give sketch of a well-proportioned eye-bar head and pin with 
relative dimensions. 



21 

STRUCTURAL STEEL DRAFTSMAN. 
DEPARTMENT OF BRIDGES. 



$1 800 and np. April 25, 1905. 

1. Show by sketch the standard sections of columns used in 
-•structural steel work. 

2. Show two standard sections of trough floors. 

3. Explain how an I-beam is designed for uniform load. Ex- 
planation of handbook table will receive proper consideration. 

4. Define (a) moment of inertia, (h) radius of gyration, (c) 
section modulus. 

5. Explain Gordon^s formula and give the three applications of 
its use. 

6. Design an eye-bar head for a 4:-in. diameter pin and 6-in. 
width of bar; allow 50% excess of material in head. 

7. State the various loads employed to get the stresses for (a) 
£xed highway bridges, (h) fixed railway bridges. 

8 and 9. Make a neat drawing of a connection of the top chord of 
a Warren truss with a vertical post at the center of a chord mem- 
ber ; the chord consists of two angles, 3'' by 3'' by | in., one top plate, 
I'' by 16 in., two webs, f by 16 in., two angles, 3" by 3" by f in., 
two flats, 3'' by i in.; the post consists of two channels, 13.75 lb. 
X)er ft. 

10. '\ATiat would be the weight of the chord section per foot if 
3 by 3 by |-in. angles are 7.2 lb. per ft. and 12 by 1-in plate, 10.8 lb. 
per ft.? 

11. Make a sketch of the connection of a heavy floor beam to a 
post. 

12. (a) Give the rules for rivet spacing, (h) What are the gen- 
eral notes on shop drawings in regard to rivet holes ? 

13. Make sketches for two styles of expansion bearings for a 
100-ft. plate girder. 

14. Arrange the following title in free-hand lettering or printing : 
Department of Bridges — Bridge over Harlem River at 145th Street. 
Scale J in. = 1 ft. 

Mathematics. 

1. Extract the square root of 1547.52086. 

2. What is the weight of a round steel bar 4 in. diameter, 16 ft. 
■6 in. long, if the weight of steel is taken at 490 lb. per cu. ft. ? 

3. A certain contract for bridge work amounts to $230 800; if 
the masonry to 32%, the piling to 23%, the woodwork to 9%, and 
the balance is steelwork which costs 3^ cents per lb., how many tons 
■of steelwork were in the contract ( 



22 
STKUCTUEAL STEEL BKIDGE DKAETSMAN. 



Technical. 

1. Make sketches showing at least five panels of the following 
styles of trusses, viz. : Whipple (single intersection) ; Warren, or 
triangular; and bow-string. Indicate in each by heavy lines the 
parts which are in compression when the truss is uniformly loaded. 

2. Take the case of a five-panel Whipple truss, and show which 
members are affected by a load on the second panel from one end,, 
and the kind of strain produced in each. 

3. What is "shear" in a truss, and how is it determined at any 
point ? 

4. The strength of a column depends upon the area of the metal 
section, the diameter, and the length. Eor columns of similar con- 
struction, give in general, for changes in each of these, the ratio in 
which the strength of a column will be affected. 

5. Give a sketch of what you would consider the best method of 
attaching rod sway-braces to iron trusses. 

6. How would you compute the strength of a riveted joint? 

7. Suppose an abutment 15 ft. high to be required for a bridge 
50 ft. wide over a running stream. Give a sketch of the same in 
plan and section, with full dimensions, such as you would deem 
necessary. 

8. Suppose the ground in this case to be unsound; give a sketch 
of a pile foundation, giving everything up to the stonework, with 
dimensions. 

9. A pine bridge is to be built on a 45° skew for 20-ft. roadway, 
with the view at some later date of doubling the width of roadway, 
(a) How should trusses be arranged for final economy of construc- 
tion? (h) How many halves of trusses must be independently cal- 
culated, and why? 

10. In making a final inspection for acceptance of the metal 
superstructure of a new pin highway, state what points should re- 
ceive attention. 

11. In examining the condition of an. old through pin bridge, 
state the important points of inspection as regards (a) floor con- 
nections; (h) counters; (c) what for double track? (d) what for four 
track ? 



23 

12. What are proper unit strains to allow for medium steel in 
the following- member of highway bridges: (a) Lateral bracing 
(tension); (h) rolled beams used as floor beams; (c) bottom chord- 
forged eye-bars; (d) bottom chord-built plates and shapes; (e) chord 
segments (compression) ? 

Extra Paper. 

1. ^^^lat, in your opinion, should distinguish (a) a good general 
drawing; (6) a good detail drawing; and (c) a good shop drawling? 

2. What are least proper clearances to allow between (a) shoe in- 
side of end-post; (h) pin-connected bridge; (c) 8-in. pin and pin- 
hole; (d) 2-in. pin for material connection and pin-hole? 

3. Show by sketch the conventional signs for rivet-holes and 
rivets, including countersunk, flat-head, etc. 

4. How shall a rivet be spaced (a) to another rivet; (h) to the 
leg of an angle; (c) why not closer? 

5. What is the least proportion the depth of plate-girders should 
have to the span? (5) Same for rolled beams used as stringers? 

6. What should be the actual size of punched rivet-holes for i-in. 
rivet? (h) What size is assumed in calculating net sections? 

7. How close is it proper to space rivets in a diagonal line in a 
riveted tension member as compared with a transverse line? 

8. Design and show by sketch a properly proportioned eye-bar 
head for a bar taking a strain of 250 000 lb. Allow unit stress of 
12 500 lb. per sq. in. 

9. Show graphically and compute analytically a pin required for 
panel point L2 where members and stresses are as follows : 

LI L2 2 eye-bars 260 000 lb. 

L2 Ul 2 eye-bars 335 000 lb. Diagonal at 45°. 

L2 LS 4 eye-bars 450 000 lb. 

L2 m Post with webs spaced 16 in., 220 000 lb. 

Allowed bending 20 000 lb. per sq. in., bearing 12 000 lb. 

10. Assume reasonable main sections and make calculations 
necessary for detail connection of stringer to floor-beam and hanger 
at end to pin for a floor-beam 16 ft. long. Two stringers connect 
on each side spaced 7-ft. centers, and transmitting 930 000 lb. each. 

11. Make complete shop drawing of above floor-beam, giving 
rivet spacing and necessary dimensions; state reasonable unit 
stresses of main section and assumption for details. 



34 

12. Make neat tracing of above drawing. 

13. Make a neat drawing of a nest of ten rollers, 3 ft. long, 
4i in. diameter, with all necessary details, including bottom bearing- 
plates. 

14. Make neat, but not necessarily accurate, drawing of a stiff 
portal bracing with name-plate for a large through bridge span. 
Let this be ornamental. 

15. Show your skill in lettering by arranging and showing style 
of letters for the following caption: 

Elevation, Proposed East River Bridge, Number 4, Department 
of Bridges, City of ISTew York, May lY, 1901. 

Mathematics. 

1. Extract the square root of 9361.429 to four places of decimals. 

2. Multiply .01629 by 47.3 and divide the product by 906.42. 
Give answer five places in decimals. 

^ 3. By logarithms multiply 43.972 by .0361 and divide the product 
by .0016. 

4. A cast-iron column is 8 in. outside diameter, 1 in. thickness of 
metal. What diameter of column with metal | in. thick will give 
the same area of cross-section of metal? 

5. The panel length of a bridge is 21 ft. in., the length of 
diagonal 35 ft. What is the height of post and the sine of the 
angle of inclination from the vertical? 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



DRAFTSMAN 

AND 

DRAFTSMAN'S HELPER 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND AXSWEIiS, 



DEAFTSMAN'S HELPER. 

1. What do you understand to be the duties of junior assistant 
draitsman ? 

He is required to 
(a) Make tracings. 
(h) Make blueprints. 

(c) Put titles and other lettering on tracings. 

(d) To index drawings and other records. 

(e) To assist in simple calculations. 

(/) To ink in drawings made by senior draftsmen. 

(g) To make himself generally useful around the office. 

2. Mention the principal instruments used by a draftsman. 
Refer to Pages 27, 28 and 29. 

3. Wliat is a "T" square and how is it used ? 

A "T" square is a straight edge, either of wood or steel, with 
a perpendicular piece fastened to it at one end. 




The "T" square is used to draw straight lines on the board, 
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the sides of the board. 
The head is placed firmly against the left-hand edge of the board, 
the upper edge of the blade is placed at the point through which, it 
is desired to draw the line; the latter which. is then drawn by passing 
the pencil or pen along the edge of the blade. 



27 



draptsma:n^'S ixstrumexts. 




Drawing Board, T-Square and Triangles. 



fofrrTTjrn )jn))iunjniiinniji)ijn]ijj)n]iniiji))j))iijjnij))nj^}U)ii)iiijniinyijjTn]^^^ 

Mnnlm?''lniflnnlmimlm?!wilinSfnil«i1Llu iillmlm1^^^^ 



Engineer's Scale. 






j'i'ii!wi'p/ip/iiini'/ii'/'Pjiii/iri'!]'j 



Architect's Scale. 




Drawing Pen. or Straight Line Pen. 



28 



DRAFTSMAN'S IlsrSTRUMEIS'TS, 



If t/2| , 

lihliU nilihlilil 




Protractor, with Arm, Vernier and Tangent Screw. 



29 



DKAFTSMAJST'S INSTRUMENTS. 




Proportional Dividers. 




Pantograph. 



30 

4. Describe the two "triangles" most used and how vertical lines 
can be drawn with them. 

The two triangles most used are 45° and 60°. 





A 45° triangle is a drawing instrument of celluloid, hard rubber, 
&c., having one angle of 90° and two of 45°. A 60° triangle has a 90° 
angle, a 60° and a 30°. 

A vertical line can be drawn on the paper by placing the "T" 
square into position, and holding one edge of the 90° angle of the 
triangle against the edge of the blade; the vertical line is then 
drawn by passing the pencil along the other side of the 90° angle. 



5. How are original drawings reproduced so that various copies 
may be sent to contractors or used on construction? 

By making blue-prints or black-prints from the original tracing. 



6. How is the blue print made from a tracing? 

In a room free from direct sunlight the tracing is placed in a 
blue-print frame, the face of the drawing against the glass; then a 
piece of blue-print paper is spread over this, with the prepared side 
towards the tracing; the back of the printing frame is then replaced 
and held tightly in position by clamps. Expose the printing frame 
to the sunlight. After the print has been sufficiently exposed (the 
time depending upon the kind of paper used and the intensity of 
the sunlight), the frame is taken to the room, the blue-print paper 
removed and quickly placed in a bath of water, after which the 
print is hung up to dry. 



31 

7. (a) How do the sides of the tracing cloth differ? (h) What 
is the advantage of using each side as compared with the other? 

(a) One side is smooth and glossy, the other is dull. 

(h) It is easier to make pencil marks and sketches on the dull 
side. The ink also takes better on this side. 

The advantage of using the glossy side is that it is easier to erase 
ink marks than on the other, and the erasure does not show as badly. 

8. After having to erase ink on tracing cloth, how can you pre- 
vent the new work from running? 

By rubbing a piece of soapstone over the portion where the 
erasure has been made. If no soapstone is at hand, any hard, 
rounded substance may be employed. 

9. What scale is used for (a) general drawings, (h) detail draw- 
ings, for school buildings? 

(a) Either |'' = 1', or if this makes the drawing too large for the 
sheet use J'' = 1'. 

(h) Y' = r, Y' = 1', ir = y, 3'' = 1', or full size. 

'n 10. Name all the drawings necessary to show the character of 
construction of a steel frame building. 

(a) Front elevation, rear elevation, and side elevations, if any. 
(h) Cellar plan. 

(c) Upper floor plans. 

(d) Cross-section. 

(e) Longitudinal section. 

(f ) Girder plans. 

(g) Column schedule. 

11. What colors are used to indicate the following materials: 
(a) iron; (h) wood; (c) plaster; (d) concrete; (e) granite; (f) 
fire brick; (g) bronze and copper; (h) fire proofing? 

(a) bluish gray. 
(h) yellow. 

(c) red. 

(d) blue. 

(e) blue.. 

(f) red. 

(g) green, 
(/i) red. 



32 

12. How are water colors mixed and applied to secure uniform 
tints and neat appearance? 

To prepare a color for use, pour a small amount of water into 
a clean porcelain dish, hold the cake of paint at the side of the 
dish, moisten the brush and rub it over the cake and apply to the 
dish until the mixture gives the required shade. 

To apply the color, commence at the top of the sheet and draw 
the brush quickly across from left to right; again starting at the 
left apply another band of color, and so on until the portion to be 
colored is completed. Care must be taken not to allow the lower 
edge to dry before the succeeding band of color is applied; other- 
wise the tint will not have a uniform appearance. 



13. What materials would the following colors indicate on draw- 
ings: (a) blue-gray; (h) red; (c) blue; (d) slate; (e) yellow? 

(a) steel or iron. 

(h) brick work, or any material manufactured from clay. 

(c) masonry. 

(d) slate. 

(e) wood. 



11. (a) Why should ink on the outside of a right line ruling 
pen be wiped away? 

(h) What is the best way of getting ink on a right line ruling- 
pen? 

(a) To avoid making a blot. 

(l>) By using the quill attached to the cork of the ink bottle. 



15. , How are contemplated alterations of an existing building 
shown on plans ? 

The usual method is to show all proposed work by heavy lines, 
and the old or existing work by light of broken lines. 

When colors are used it is customary to show new work in red, 
the old work being left uncolored. 



16. Explain the following terms used in carpentry specifications : 
(a) centers (for mason); (h) furring; (c) trim; (d) wedging. 



(a) Centers are wooden forms used to support the arches or 
openings in walls during construction. 

(&) Furring consists of light strips, to which the laths and 
plastering are fastened. 

(c) The trim in rooms consists of base-boards, and finishing 
boards around windows, doors and other openings. 

(d) Wedge-shaped pieces of wood or iron used as shim-plates 
to bring columns or girders into true position. 



17. Explain the following terms used in masonry specifications: 
(a) Flemish bond; (h) stone templet; (c) wash (of sills); (d) 
drip (of cornice). 

(a) Flemish bond consists of alternate headers and stretchers in 
every course, every header being immediately over the center of a 
stretcher in the course below. 

(h) A stone templet is a stone built into a wall to take the bear- 
ing of a beam supported by the wall. 

(c) The wash of sills is the slope given to the upper surface in 
order to shed water. 

(d) The "drip" is that portion of a cornice which has a pro- 
jection beyond the other parts for throwing off water which would 
otherwise trickle down on parts beneath. 



18. (a) What is a column; (fe) a pilaster? 

(a) A column is a member used in construction, designed to 
withstand compressive stresses. 

(h) A pilaster is a rectangular post resting against a wall, and 
projecting from the wall about a fourth or a sixth part of its 
breadth. 



19. (a) TMiat are shop rivets? (&) What do open holes show 
on shop drawings? 

(a) Rivets driven in the shop. 

(h) They show position of field rivets or bolts. 



20. (a) How. many square chains (of 66 ft. per chain) are there 
in an acre? (h) How many square feet are there in an acre? 

(a) 10 square chains. 
il) 43 560 sq. ft. 



34 

TOPOGEAPHICAL DEAFTSMAN. 

21. What are the duties of a topographical draftsman? State 
all the kinds of maps you would be called upon to draw. 

A topographical draftsman is required to examine, reduce and 
plot notes of surveys. 

To compute and balance traverses. 

To make drawings, tracings and blue-prints, neatly and rapidly. 

To reduce or enlarge drawings. 

He should be familiar with the use of logarithms and the 
trigonometric functions. 

He may be called upon to prepare — 

Topographical maps. 

Street-opening maps. 

Damage maps, 

Benefit maps. 

Rule maps. 

Drainage maps. 

Layout maps for dams, sewers, highways, bridges and other work. 



22. What is topography? 

Topography is the complete determination and representation 
of any portion of the surface of the earth, showung the relative 
heights and positions of all features, both natural and artificial. 



23. What is a topographical map? 

A topographical map is a drawing of a portion of the earth's 
surface showing the relative position of all points, both natural and 
artificial, and also their relative elevations. All features are repre- 
sented by conventional signs. 



24. What are the objects of a topographical drawing, especially 
of a portion of new wards of the city? 

The objects are to obtain data for laying out new streets, drainage 
systems, water-sheds, sites for dams, parks, railroads, calculat- 
ing earthwork, etc. 



35 



25. (a) What would a good topographical map show for a sewer 
outlay in a new portion of the city? (h) What should such a map 
show for a park outlay? 

(a) 1. Correct plan and character of all the present and proposed 
streets in the district. 

2. All buildings in the district. 

3. Complete contour system. 

4. Profile. 

5. Location and character of all forests, meadows, swamps. 

6. Water courses. 

7. All existing sewers and drains. 
(6) 1. Same as above. 

2. Same as above. 

3. Same as above referred to system of squares. 

4. Location and character of trees, forests, shrubbery, water 

courses, surface rock, character of soil, drainage, etc. 



26. (a) State all the information you could obtain from a topo- 
graphical map. (h) State all the uses such a map could be put to. 

(a) Location and names of streets and roads, location of water 
courses, lakes, seas, etc., location of houses, contours, elevations 
on street lines. 

(h) 1. To lay out new roads, railroads, aqueducts, dams, etc. 
("paper location")- 

2. To draw profiles and cross-sections. 

3. To calculate amount of excavation in a hill, or fill in a 

valley. 

4. To calculate contents of reservoirs, or storage area. 

5. To find area of any desired portions for condemnation or 

damage work. 



27. For the purpose of making such a map what notes are 
furnished and which require the most accuracy? 

a. Notes or primary and secondary traverses to which all the 
work is referred. 

h. Notes for the location of all topographic features referred 
to the traverse lines. 

c. Notes for profiles and cross-sections of roads. 

d. Notes showing elevations of a sufficient number of governing 
points by means of which contours are plotted. 

The traverse work requires the greatest accuracy. 



36 



28. What are contour lines? How far apart are they on city 
maps ? Do contours ever cross each other ? Do they ever touch each 
other? 

A contour is a continuous line passing through points on the 
surface of the earth, all of which are at the same elevation above 
or below a given datum.. 

In the city the contours below elevation + 50 are usually given 
2 ft. apart vertically; above + 50 they are 5 ft. apart. 

Contour lines cross each other on a steep bluff which slopes 
forward ; they touch each other on a vertical bluff. 

29. What are hachures? How are they drawn? What does the 
increase in thickness or the increase in space between hachures 
indicate ? 

Hachures are lines drawn between adjacent contour lines. They 
are drawn normal to same and the hachures between any pair of 
contour lines break joints with those above and below. Short heavy 
lines close together represent steep slopes, thin lines spaced further 
apart indicate gentle slopes. 

30. What is the horizontal system of topography? Explain upon 
what theory hills, valleys, etc., are represented in this system. 

What is the vertical system? 

In the horizontal system of topography tihie relative elevation of 
points on the surface are represented by means of contour lines. 

The many varieties of contour lines are derived from five simple 
cases : 




37 

1. Sloping down on all sides, i. e., a hill. 

2. Sloping up on all sides, i. e., a hollow. 

3. Sloping down on three sides and up on one, i. e., a shoulder or 
promontory, the end of a ridge or water-shed line. 

4. Sloping up on three sides and down on one, i. e., a valley or 
thalweg. 

5. Sloping up on two sides and down on two, alternately, i. e,, a 
"pas" or "col," or "saddle." 

(The arrows show direction of flow.) 

In the vertical system of topography, slopes are shown by shade 
from vertical light; steep slopes are shaded very heavy and hori- 
zontal surfaces indicated white. Intermediate slopes are shown by 
a proper degree of shade between white and black. This system 
is rapid and effective, but is not very precise, unless used in com- 
bination with contour lines. 



31. How do you represent the slopes of hills and valleys by 
contours? What is a scale of shade? 

The contours are run through points of equal elevation and 
the elevations marked on them to indicate the direction of the 
slope; the nearer the contours approach each other the steeper the 
slope. 

(See also Q. 30.) 

In a scale of shade heavy short lines represent steep slopes, thin 
long lines, gentle slopes. In the German method a scale of nine 
different grades is used, representing slopes from 0° to 45°, the 
first grade being white and the last black; for intermediate slopes 
the following proportion of white to black is used : 

white _45° — angle of slope 
black angle of slope 

Steeper slopes are represented by short heavy lines, parallel to the 
contour lines. 

Many other arbitrary scales of shade are employed. 



32. What do you understand by pen topography? 

In pen topography, as distinguished from color topography, the 
topographical features are shown by conventional signs drawn by 
the pen. 



38 

33. How are level notes shown on a map, and what is such a map 
called? 

Level notes are usually shown on a map by means of contour 
lines; the points at which elevations have been taken are also shown 
on the map. 

Such a map is called a "contour" map. 



34. Name the conventional colors for different features, natural 
and artificial? 

Woods — yellow. 

Grass-land — green. 

Cultivated land — brown. 

Gardens — small patches of green and brown. 

Uncultivated land — marbled green and light brown. 

Brush — marbled green and yellow. 

Sand — light brown. 

Lakes and rivers — light blue. 

Seas — dark blue. 

Marshes — blue, with spots of green. 

•Koads — brown. 

Hills — ^greenish brown. 



35. Give all the conventional signs you know of. 

Some signs are given below. See Reinhardt's "Technic," p. 35, 
for more complete list of conventions. 

Orchard. 



mmMA^M. 



m^m^/.'m 



m^m^^m. 



Grass. 



Cultivated land. 



3D 



.1/. Jl/y. \\i// s\\l/, A»// wVlL ,1 a\I/, 






;i]i]i|i'l'l 


lliiilililillli 


/^/A^,- //////// 



Sand. 



Gravel. 



Salt-water marsh. 




Fresh- water marsh. ^^^jr-~^^Zi:^^Er-^^^^^^-ip-^stI^^ 



Glacier. 



//, f ^ I t I f ^ f f I I ' I I ! I 1 1 I I . 

smmm 



40 



JLt 

Bridge. 




Ferry. 

Ford. -== 

Dam. 

State line. 

County line. 

Township line. : 

Railroad tunnel. Mil l l) r_~_1.~ Z Z J^ l I I I I I! 

Single-track railroad. | | | | | | | | | | I I I 1 I I I I I M 

' Double-track railroad. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 

36. How do you apply colors on a topographical map ? 

First stretch the paper on a drawing-board by wetting the 
former thoroughly with a sponge and gluing the edges to the 
board. When the paper has become dry it will be smooth and tight, 
and the application of colors will not cause it to swell or blister. 

Mix the colors in porcelain dishes diluted to the proper tint, 
they must not be mixed thick. 

To apply the color use a camel's hair brush, keep it moderately 
full. Incline the board towards you, begin at the upper part of the 
drawing and continue downward, never letting the lower edge of the 
color dry, and preferably from left to right aqross the board. 

When colors are applied to a tracing they are painted on the 
back of the cloth so as not to blur or confuse the drawing. In 
order not to wrinkle the tracing the colors should be applied quickly 
and then blotted by means of ordinary blotting paper; before the 
colors have dried completely the tracing should be rolled up on a 
round stick and held thus with rubber bands until completely dry; 
this will cause the paper to remain smooth. 

37. How would you lay out a map on paper with regard to 
cardinal points? 



41 

Having the map placed before you, north must come towards the 
top of the drawing, south towards the bottom, east towards the 
right and west towards the left. 

38. ^^lat is the most accurate way of plotting a survey, and give 
your reason for preferring it? 

The most accurate method is by "co-ordinates," that is, calculat- 
ing the co-ordinates of all stations with respect to a pair of rectan- 
gular co-ordinates, plotting these co-ordinates and joining the points 
thus located. 

In this method a point which is not plotted correctly will not 
affect the position of other points. Errors are thus confined to 
individual points and are not cumulative. 

39. Assuming that you had to plot a course 1 080 ft. long 
N. 18° 40' W. Describe two ways of doing it, one of which must be 
accurate, and state why it is so. 

a. By means of scale and protractor. First draw the meridian 
lines (N. and S. and E. and W.) and by means of protractor lay 
off the angle of 18° 40' to the left of north line, draw the course and 
measure to scale 1 080 ft. along same. 

h. By means of latitudes and departures. Calculate the latitude 
and departure of course 1 080 ft. long bearing N. 18° 40' W. Assume 
the intersection of the meridians as the beginning of the course. 
Lay off to scale the computed latitude to the north from the 
beginning and mark the point; at this point lay off to same scale 
the departure to the west and mark the point. Join this last point 
with the point of beginning, giving the required course. 

The latitude and departure method is accurate because the 
positions on the drawing of the beginning and end of the course 
are determined with mathematical accuracy, and errors in plotting 
are minimized. 

40. Describe the method of plotting the course of a survey by 
chords. 

This is done by means of a table of chords which gives the 
lengths of the chords of arcs, for every degree and minute from 
0° to 90°, calculated for a radius of unity. 

To lay off the course, draw meridian (N. and S.). With any 
point (as the beginning of the course) as center and a unit radius 
draw arc. Take out of table, length of chord for given bearing. 
With this as radius to the same scale, and the intersection of first 
arc and meridian as center, draw second arc. The intersection of the 
two arcs will be a second point on the course. Join this with point 
of beginning and lay off length to scale of drawing. 



42 

41. How would you draw a tangent to a circle from a point 
on the circumference? 

At the given point draw a line perpendicular to the radius pass- 
ing through it. This will be the required tangent. 



42. Show several ways of expressing the scale for a map. 

a. Scale, V = 20'. 

h. Scale, 20 ft. to the inch. 

c. Scale, oio. 

d. 

20 15 10 5 20 40 60 80 



43. What is meant by a profile and show one drawn to scale, 
showing ten stations in broken country; show everything in detail? 

A profile is a vertical section along a survey line usually drawn 
to a distorted scale so as to emphasize changes in elevation. The 
elevations of all breaks in the slope are given, as also the elevations 
at regular stations. 

For profile drawn to scale see Question No. 46. 

44. State all the data that could be obtained from a complete 
profile of any street in New York City. 

a. Elevations of all points on center line. 
h. Of all points on the curbs. 

c. Of all points in the gutters. 

d. All streets intersecting the given street. 

e. Correct length and grade of street. 

45. (a) To what datum are elevations in New York City re- 
ferred? (h) Are elevations of any other p^irt of the street given 
on the profile besides the center line? 

(a) Elevations in New York City are referred to Mean High 
Water. There is no uniform datum for all departments. 

(h) The elevations of both curb lines are usually given as well 
as those of the center line, and som.etimes the house lines. 



46. Show a page of your profile level notes for a distance of 600 
ft. with numerous breaks in the surface and several set-ups. Re- 
duce the notes, draw profile and grade line. 



43 



Profile along Center Line of Proposed Street. 

July 16, 1892. 
Party— J. B.— L. K.—R. S. 



Sta. 


B. S. 


H.I. 


F. S. 


Elev. 


Remarks. 


B. M 


3.725 


103.725 




100.0 

99.0 
98.4 
96.6 
96.9 
95.6 
94.3 
93.512 


j Water table N. W cor. 10th 
1 Ave. and 59th St. 
North curb of 59th St. 


0-J 


-75 

- 

- 
-27 
1- 


4.7 
5.3 
7.1 

6.8 
8.1 
9.4 
10.213 


OH 








1 - 








2- 








2H 








3- 








T. P. 










4.219 


97.731 




4-f 




6.2 
4.7 

10.9 

7.2 
3.5 

2.788 


. . . 
91.5 
93.0 

86.8 

90.5 
94.2 
94.943 





4 + 60 








4-t-91 






j Bottom of brook three feet 


4 + 91 






1 wide. 
Surface of water 


5+0 








T. P. 










7.369 


102.312 




5 + 18 
5 + 50 


6.2 

9.5 

11.4 

8.792 


............ 

92.8 
90.9 

93.520 










6+ 








B. M. 10 






« See P. 100. 








1 El. 93.525. 



El.lOO 




+75 1-H?0 S+CO+S? 3+00 A+00 +50 /5^0\ \ 6+o"d' 

+91 +18 +50 
Profile on Cen+er Line of Proposed Si-reef-. 



47. What is meant by a traverse? A logarithm? A right-of- 
way map ? What is a well-conditioned angle ? 

A traverse is a closed survey of any tract of land giving the 
lengths of all the courses and the angles- between adjacent ones. 

A logarithm of any number is the exponent of the power to which 
an assumed base must be raised to give that number. Ten is the 
base of the common system. 



44 



A right-of-way map of a railroad is one showing the land secured 
by the road for the purpose of operation. 

A well-conditioned angle is one whose logarithmic functions 
do not vary rapidly; a slight error in measurement of same would 
have a small effect upon the calculation. 

48. What are latitudes and departures and how do you find them 
accurately? 

li B = bearing of a course and L, its length. 

Latitude = L y^ cos. B. 

Departure = L X sin. B. 

They are obtained accurately by means of logarithmic tables. 

49. What is meant by balancing a survey? 

"Balancing" a survey is the proportioning of the errors of lati- 
tude and departure among the courses, so that the sum of the 
northings equals the sum of the southings, and the sum of the 
eastings equals that of the westings. 

The rule usually employed is "The correction for any course 
is to total error as the length of that course is to total perimeter. 



50. When a survey does not balance what do you do both in com- 
putation and in drawing? 

To find corrections mathematically, see Question 49. 

y 




Total Error in <d<ap 



To find the corrections graphically lay off from some point 
the total error of latitude and of departure at right angles to 
each other, to any convenient scale. From this point lay off a line 
representing the perimeter of the traverse to convenient scale, giving 
lengths of the courses continuously, as shown in diagram. 5'-l' = 
departure correction for coiirse 5-1, etc. 

These corrections should be applied to the computed latitudes 
and departures to make the survey balance. 



45 

51. (a) WTiat are the causes of error in angular measurements? 
(h) In linear measurements? 

(a) 1. Slipping and shifting of instrument parts. 

2. Reading the verniers incorrectly. 

3. Errors in bisection. 

4. Poor and indistinct sights. 

5. 'Not setting up instrument directly over point. 

6. Horizontal axis not in adjustment. 

7. Line of collimation out of adjustment (in measuring de- 

flection angles by plunging). 

8. Plate not horizontal. 

{h) Errors in linear measurements. 

1. Tape not standardized. 

2. Tape not held correctly over points. 

3. Tape not held truly horizontal. 

4. Expansion or contraction of tape due to changes in tem- 

perature not allowed for. 

5. Reading tape incorrectly. 

6. Not applying proper tension. 

7. Kinks in tape and obstructions to measurement. 



52. How would you examine the notes of an extensive closed 
survey to see if it is within the limits of accuracy? State where in 
such a survey you would look for the errors to have been made 
having regard to lines, location of stations, etc. 

Add up the interior angles of the survey. Their sum should equal 
180° X number of sides, minus 360°. If the angles check closely, 
distribute the error, compute the latitudes and departures and the 
"error of closure" which = 

V (Error in Lat.)^ -f- (Error in Dep.)'^. 

If the angles do not "close" or the "error of closure" is too 
great, examine notes carefully to detect errors in the record. If 
compass bearings have been taken compare them with the computed 
bearings. 

If no error can be found in the notes the computation should be 
reviewed before any field work is repeated. 



53. How would you supply a missing course? (In a traverse.) 

Compute the latitudes and departures of the courses, take the 
sum of the north and the sum of the south latitudes and find the 
difference of the sums. Do the same with E. and W. departures. 



If 



Then 
If 



X = length of missing side 
lat. =. Diff. in latitudes, 
dep. = " departures. 
!> =\/(lat.)2 + (dep.)^ 



tan. 



= bearing of missing course, 
_ lat. 
dep.' 



54. What is a traverse table and how is it used ? 

A traverse table is one giving the latitude and departure of 
courses V, 2% V, 4'', 5'', 6', V, 8'' and 9' long, for all angles between 
0° and 90°. Very good tables give the latitudes and departures for 
distances from V to 100' long, and for each minute of arc. 

To get the departure of a course 5 876 ft. long for angle of 39° -17'. 
Look up departures for 39° 17' and take 1 000 times the departure 
of 5', 100 times the departure of 8', 10 times the departure of V, 
1 times the departure of 6'. 

The sum of these products is the required departure. 

65. What form of notes would you require to enable you to 
plot an irregular shore line of a lake or river? 

" A meander line with perpendicular offsets from the same to 
enough points on the shore line to properly locate it for the purpose 
of the survey. 

56. In a circle of one inch radius show by letters the trigono- 
metric functions, giving position and lengths. 




Let A = angle B A C 
Kadius A F =- \ in. 
Then sin A =B C 

cos A = A C 



Un A ^ D F 

cot A = H G 

sec A ^ A D 

cosec A ^ A G 

versiii A = C F = B E 

coversin A = B K = H L 

exsec A ^ B D 
coexsec A =^ B G 



57. Are the sines and cosines always plus? If not, how are they 
accounted for in calculations? Give the mathematical relations 
between the sin., cos., tan., cot., sec. and cosec. of an angle. 

Sines are + in the first and second quadrants and — in the third 
and fourth. 

Cosines are + in the first and 4th quadrants and — in the second 
and third. 

Logarithms used are always —-, the algebraic sigTi of the answer 
to any problem is obtained by the regular rules of algebra and the 
signs of the factors are disregarded in looking up the logarithms. 

58. Do the signs remain the same for an angle over 90° for all 
functions as for one under 90°? If not, why not? 

The signs of functions of an angle over 90° are not all the same 
as those for an angle under 90°, because the signs of the functions 
depend upon their positions with respect to the axes of reference, 
the axes to the left and below being considered negative, and as the 
angle increases above 90° the functions change their signs accord- 
ingly. 

59. Describe how the area of a piece of land is determined by 
(a) the use of the planimeter, (h) by double meridian distances, 
(c) What other methods are used? 

(a) The planimeter is first set so as to read square inches; it is 
then placed on the plat, split up into suitable sections, the prick 
point pressed into the paper wherever convenient, and the pointer 
passed around the perimeter of the section until it returns to the 
starting point. The index then shows the number of square inches 
included in the section, and so on for each section of the plot. The 
total, multiplied by the square of the scale of the drawing, gives the 
area. 

(h) Twice the area of the plot is equal to the algebraic sum of 
the products obtained by multiplying the latitude of each course 
by its double meridian distance. 



48 



o 

O 

o 

m 

a 



ji 


- 


S 8 8 


^ i 


7 


- 


6 

m 


5i 

i 


5^ H 

1 


^. 1 




7 
1 


H 


1 


> s 




« 


8 
+ 


1 


5^ 

1 


i-i 


1 

! ' ^ 


1 
+ + 

f T-l 


H 
1 


H 


1 ^ 

O r-l 


> ^ 


J< 


1 


a 
•S3 


Q 

1 *^ 


1 1 « 


i '^ 

>! 

1 

1 




'5 


'• 1 

: 1 
: 1 


1 i I 


: i ^ 

' 1 


: 1 

: 1 
i 1 

: '1 

; j 
i 



49 



(c) 1. By dividing the plot into triangles, trapezoids, etc., scaling 
dimensions and calculating areas from these approximate dimen- 
sions. 

2. By plotting on cardboard of uniform thickness, cutting out 
along the perimeter and comparing weight of plot with weight of 
known area. 

3. By plotting the work on cross-section paper and counting the 
squares included within the perimeter, the area may be approxi- 
mately determined. 

60. In computing the parts of a triangle how many different 
cases may arise? To which one may two correct answers be given 
and under what conditions? 

1. Two sides and the included angle. 

2. Two angles and the included side, 

3. Three sides and no angles. 

4. Two sides and the angle opposite one of them. 

There may be two correct solutions in the fourth case when 
the given angle is less than 90°, and the side opposite it divided by 
the adjacent side is greater than the natural sine of the angle. 

61. The base of a triangle is 563.25 feet long and one of the other 
sides is 468 ft. The included angle is equal to 60°. What is the 
area of the triangle ? 




K-"- 



234 



From similar triangles we have 
X _ 4G8 _ 

whence x = 234 times V^ 

= 234 times 1.7321 
= 435.31 feet 



and 



area = 435.31 times 563.25 divided by 2. 
= 122,594.18 sq. ft. Ans. 



50 

62. A trapezoidal piece of ground is to be divided into two 
parts in the ratio of 2 to 3 by a line parallel to the parallel sides, the 
larger part to be adjacent to the smaller parallel side. The parallel 
sides are respectively, 675 ft. and 437 ft. long, the other sides are 
300 ft. and 350 ft. long. Find the distance to the dividing line 
from the longest parallel side on each of the other sides. 







• A 

l^Mf 

L 1 /3d \ 


1 \ ^ 

/ /3S \ > 


A « 


U D 

'* o 


P-'"" '•'""*" ^A? t' 


H 



> 



Draw E F parallel to J. D, i^ K to C D, and C Lto A B. 
L D = A K = 575 — 437 =z 138 ft. 

BEF C S m 



Required to make 



A E FJD 2 n 

EF = v( ^X^^'+^ X^^^'^ 
^ \ m -{- n J 

Note. — See Gillespie's " Surveying." 



'^^ 



Ei.= Jii^I54±|iiH!)!= 524.14 ft. 



ThenirJ^=:E;(7 = EF—B C = 87.14 ft. 
From similar triangles we then have 

'^ ^ ^1^^, or Gr = 221.0 n. 



87.14 138' 

also ^^ =^,otBE= 189.44 ft. 

87.14 138' 



Hence 



J^'D = 350 — 221.0 =129.0 ft. Ans. 
EA = 300 — 189.44 = 110.56 ft. Ans. 



63. Show portion of hill, containing two depressions or ravines, 
approximately parallel, starting from nothing a little below the top 
and reaching a considerable depth before debouching upon the plain 
below. A swelling ridge to occupy space between the ravine's 
hachures. 

Fig. 1. Page 52. 



51 

64. Show a fresh water pond with in- and out-going stream, 
marshy shore and small wood island. 

Fig. 2. 

65. Show a farmhouse, stable, outhouse, orchard, cultivated land, 
stone fences, wooded land, brook and pond, road bushes and uncul- 
tivated land. 

Fig. 3. 

66. Show a hill, 100 ft. high, represented by hachures showing 
differences of elevation of 10 ft. 

Fig. 4. 

67. Show same hill as in Q. 66 by contours. 
Fig. 5. 

68. Show a reservoir and dam, with wide stream above and be- 
low. 

Fig. 6. 

69. Show an abrupt rocky shore with sand beach. 
Fig. 7. 

70. Show a dwelling house with walks, drives, shade trees, garden, 
kitchen garden and orchard. 



Fig. 8. 



STEUCTURAL STEEL DRAFTSMAN. 



71. Define (a) moment of inertia, (h) radius of gyration, (c) 
section modulus, (d) neutral axis. 

(a) The moment of inertia of an area or section about any axis 
in the same plane is the sum of the products obtained by multiply- 
ing each infinitesimal portion of the area by the square of its dis- 
tance from the axis. 

(h) The radius of gyration about any axis is the square root of 
the quotient obtained by dividing the moment of inertia about that 
axis by the area of the section. 

(c) The section modulus is the quotient obtained by dividing 
the moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis by the 
distance from that axis to the extreme fiber. 





Fig. 1. 



Fig. 5. 





Fig. 3. 



Fig. 6. 





•Fig. 3. 



Fig. 7. 




•xl^j 



uJL' ex:-3 







Fig. 



Fig. 8, 



53 



{d) The neutral axis is the line passing through points at which 
there is no internal tension or compression. 



72. What unit stresses would you assume as safe in the use of 
medium steel (a) for a city bridge under heavy traffic; (?)) for a 
bridge for ordinary highway traffic; (c) for a roof truss? 



Member. 



Floor beam hangers, etc , 

Long. Lat. and sway bracing, wind 

41 II H 4i 14 ^ JJyg 

load 

Rolled beams, used as fl. b'ms, etc. 
Bottom flanges of riveted girders. . 
Tension members of trusses, dead 

load 

Tension members of trusses, live 

load 



' Chord segments, live load. 



dead 



Posts of through bridges, live 

" " " " dead 

Posts of deck bridges and trestles, 
live 



Post of deck bridges and trestles. 



Shear on shop rivets. 
Bearing on " " . 



(a) 
lbs. per D ' 



6 000 
18 000 

12 000 
10 000 
10 000 

20 000 

10 000 

I 
p = 10 000 — 45 - 

I 
p = 20 000 — 90 - 

I 
r 
l_ 
r 

r 
I 



= 17 000 — 90 



p= 9 000 — 40 



p = 18 000 — 1 

9 000 lbs. D' 
15 000 



lbs. per D " 



8 000 
18 000 

18 000 
13 009 
13 000 

25 000 

12 500 



I 
p = 12 000 — 55 -. 

I 
P 



.000 — 110- 



p = 10 000 — 45 



p = 20 000 — 90- 



p = 11 000 — 40 - 



p = 22 000 

10 000 
18 000 



(c) 
lbs. per n 



jsr. 



16 000 
16 000 



10 000 
20 000 



The above values are fairly representative. 



73. State the various loads employed to get the stresses in (ay 
fixed highway bridges; (h) fixed railway bridges. 



(a) 1. Dead weight of the bridge, including trusses, floor systemt 
and bracing, roadway,' sidewalk, etc. 

2. Live load of 100 lb. per sq. ft. on the bridge (excluding space 
occupied by tracks). 

3. Moving live load, representing heaviest street cars that may- 
pass over the bridge. 

4. A uniform wind load considered acting horizontally. 

5. A moving wind load acting horizontally. 

(h) 1. Dead and wind loads same as in highway bridges. 



64 

2. A system of concentrated loads on the tracks, representing the 
wheel loads of the heaviest engines that may pass over the bridge. 



74. State what loads are used per square foot for office, school 
floors, floors of warehouses for heavy goods, for public assembly 
rooms, etc. 

Office, 150 lb. per sq. ft., first floor; Y5 lb. per sq. ft., upper floors. 

School, 75 lb. per sq. ft. 

Warehouses, 150 lb. per sq. ft., heavy storage. 

Warehouses, 120 lb. per sq. ft., light storage. 

Assembly, 90 lb. per sq. ft. 

Factory, 150 lb. per sq. ft. 

Hotels, tenements, etc., 60 lb. per sq. ft. 



75. Explain Gordon's formula and give the three applications of 

its use. 

. The usual form of Gordon's formula for long columns is 

in which 

P = ultimate strength of column, in pounds. 

f = ultimate compressive strength, in pounds per square inch. 

S = cross-sectional area of column, in square inches. 

I = length of column, in inches. 

r = least radius of gyration of column, in inches. 

a = constant, determined by experiment; being smallest for 
"fixed" end columns, greatest for "pin" end columns, 
and intermediate for "pin and square" end columns. 

The three different cases arising in the application of Gordon's 
formula are: 

1. "Fixed" end columns. 

2. "Pin" end columns. 

3. "Pin and square" end colunms. 



76. Make sketch for a steel built-up column footing to transmit 
to masonry foundation a load of 200 tons. 



55 




i 

I -t- h +rf\ 

-t-i -^^||l-^ i-fr 
+ i+- llji t| + 






Base 



25tWeP/^Z^i%lxZ'0' 

I Base F/. ^^''xlx^'/^ 
\6FJUersi''thick 



Assume 15 000 lb. per sq. in. bearing on rivets. 
7 500 " " " " shear on rivets. 
800 " " " " bearing on granite. 
400 000 



00 



500 sq. in., base plate. 



Use plate, 20 X 25 in., giving 500 sq. m. 

Use |-in. rivets; double shear per rivet = 9 020 lb.; bearing oti 
two f-in. side plates = 9 850 lb. 

. = 44 rivets needed to connect side plate to column proper, 

9 020 ^ ^ ^ 

The arrangement of side plates, as shown, distributes load over 
the whole base plate. 

The side plates give an aggregate bearing area of about 34 sq. in. 
on the base plate. 

— x-j — • = 11 750 lb. per sq. in., which is well within safe limits. 

These calculations are on the assumption that the side plates 
distribute the whole column load to the base plate. In practice, the 
column is faced before the base plate is connected up, thus making 
the column proper bear on the base plate also ; but if we consider the 
whole load to be taken directly to the base plate by the column, we 
get too great an intensity of pressure on the foundation directly 



66 



under the column. It is therefore on the side of safety to consider 
the load distributed upon the foundation by the side plates only. 



77. Design a stone footing of courses 2 ft. thick for a load from 
a column of 250 tons, for ground which will take 4 tons per sq. ft. 
safely. 

250 
Area required for bottom course = -j- = 62.5 sq. ft. 

Let bottom course be 8 ft. by 8 ft., giving 64 sq. ft. of area. 

Assuming that specifications allow 800 lb. per sq. ft. bearing on 

granite cap-stone, then 

250 X 2 000 
Area of base plate of column = k^k = 625 sq. in. 

V625 = 25 in., making base plate 25 by 25 in. 

Assume safe bearing of granite cap on masonry at 400 lb. per sq. 

250 X 2 000 
in., then bearing area of granite cap = jttx = 1 250 sq. in. 

n/1 250 = 35 + inches; use cap 36 by 36 in. 
The sketch, which gives sufficient room for base plate, shows 
complete design. 










• .»«• •■• 


6tcrn/fe 










M^onpr 






Masonry 




M.s..ry 


h s'(?- -H 



4 — 



78. Show by sketches a cast-iron column base for a 12-in. round 
column. 



57 





79. Show by sketches the usual connection of a cast-iron column 
for a 15-in. I-beam. 



>l-/i^"H 



>f/|f^->i 



t/i-i< 










• 








• 








• 


or 







SeatS/opes§-' 
Webso/7 






-7:- 



Lugs ^"ifr/ck 



•■H/5'eOJIbs.a:over 




80. What points must be considered in designing columns \ 

1. Loads should be applied to columns centrally wherever pos- 
sible, eccentric loading being avoided. 



68 

2. The ratio of unsupported length to least radius of gyration 
( — j must not exceed 120 in building work, and 100 in bridge wort 
for steel columns. When cast-iron columns are used in buildings 
must not exceed 70. 



a) 



3. Bearing plates must be used between cast-iron columns placed 
upon one another, least thickness of metal allowed being f in. 

4. When shapes are used they must be so arranged as to facilitate 
the work of riveting them together. 

5. The base and top of any column must be made truly perpen- 
dicular to the length by facing, if necessary. 



81. (a) What is the least proportion of depth a plate girder should 
have to the span? (h) In general how should stiffeners be spaced? 

(a) In railroad bridges the depth of a plate girder should not be 
less than --^^ to Vij ^^ ^^^ span ; in highway bridges the depth may be 
as small as -3-0 of the span. 

(h) Stiff eners must be placed over bearing points and at points 
of - concentrated loadings. In general they are placed at intervals 
not exceeding the depth of the girder, or a maximum of 5 ft. (in 
railroad bridges), wherever the shearing strain per square inch ex- 
ceeds the following : Allowed shearing strain = 10 000 — 75 H, 
where H == ratio of depth of web to its thickness. 



82. (a) How is the strength of a rivet computed; (h) also about 
what constants would you adopt for steel rivets in such a computa- 
tion? 

(a) The strength of a rivet is computed for shear and bearing. 
Bending in rivets is usually ignored. The shearing strength (single 
shear). of a rivet is equal to the area of its cross-section multiplied 
by the allowable shear per square inch. For double shear the 
strength of the rivet is twice this amount ; for quadruple, four times. 
The bearing strength of a rivet is calculated as follows : 
Let d = diameter of rivet, in inches. 

t = thickness of plate upon which rivet bears (in inches). 
}) = bearing allowed per square inch. 
B = bearing strength of rivet. 
Then B = h d t, 
(h) The New York City Building Code allows 10 000 lb. per sq. 
in. shear and 20 000 lb. per sq. in. bearing for shop rivets. Lower 
values than these are allowed for highway and railroad bridges. 
The American Bridge Company increases the live-load stresses in 
structures by 25% and then allows 11 000 lb. per sq. in. shear and 



69 

22 000 lb. per sq. in. bearing. For field rivets these values are 
usually decreased 20 per cent. 

83. Would you adopt the same constants for field rivets as for 
shop driven, and what reasons can you give for your decision? 

No. Smaller constants should be allowed for field-driven rivets, 
because it is easier to make well-driven rivets in the shop than in 
the field, and the chances of discovering badly-driven rivets in the 
field are not so good as in the shop. 

Note. — For hand-driven field rivets most authorities allow 20% 
less in the constants than for shop. Cooper allows only 665% of 
the constants for field-driven rivets. When field rivets are machine 
driven, about 10% is the usual reduction in constants. 

84. Is there any rule, and if so what, (a) for the minimum and 
maximum distances between rivets in riveted floor beams or 
columns; (h) for the minimum distance from the rivet hole to the 
edge of any piece? 

(a) The pitch of rivets, in the direction of the strain, must not 
exceed 6 in., nor 16 times the thickness of the thinnest outside 
plate connected, and not more than 30 times that thickness at right 
angles to the strain. The minimum pitch of rivets is three times 
the diameter of the rivet. 

At the end of compression members pitch must not exceed four 
diameters of rivet for a length equal to twice the width of the 
member. 

(h) The distance from the edge of any piece to the center of a 
rivet hole must not be less than 1^ times the diameter of the rivet, 
nor exceed 8 times the thickness of the plate. 

85. (a) Give the rules for rivet spacing. 

(h) What are the general notes on shop drawings in regard to 
rivet holes? 

(a) 1. The pitch shall not be less than three diameters of the 
rivet. 

2. The pitch shall not be greater than 6 in. nor than 16 times 
the thinnest outside plate. 

3. The pitch at the end of compression members shall not exceed 
4 diameters of the rivet for a length equal to twice the width of the 
member. 

4. The distance between the edge of any piece and the center 
of the rivet hole must not be less than li in., preferably 1^ di- 
ameters of rivet, except for bars less than 2i in. wide. 

5. The unsupported width (distance between rivets) 01 plates 
subject to compression shall not exceed 30 times their thickness, ex- 



60 

cept cover plates of top chords, which shall preferably be limited to 
40 times their thickness. 

(h) The general notes on shop drawings are as follows: All 
[rivets, f in. diameter unless noted ; open holes, || in. diameter un- 
less noted. 

86. What should be the actual size of punched rivet holes for i-in. 
rivets? (&) What size is assumed in calculating net sections? 

(a) if in. diameter. 
(h) 1 in. diameter. 

87. How close can |-in. rivets be driven (a) to each other, (b) to 
the edge of the piece? 

(a) 3 X f in. = 2i in. 

(h) U X -I = H in. (usually U in.). 

88. Show the conventional signs for rivets and field holes. 

^ Held 

\J) Two Fuli Heads # 

Countersunk Farside and Chipped (■•) 

Countersunk Nearside anc( Chipped 
Countersunk Both Sides and Chipped 



u 



Fiattened Toq or Countersunk and not Chipped 
Farside Nearside Both sides 

Q Q 

Flattened to ^" Hig^h 

Fci'^side Nearside Both sides 



o 



Flattened to ^ Hi^h 



Farside Nearside Doth sides 



O 



61 



89. How is the strength of a rod having a screw thread on it cal- 
culated, and in what case can the full strength of the rod be con- 
sidered available? 

In calculating the strength, the effective cross-section is taken 
through the root of the threads. There must always be such a num- 
ber of threads in the nut that the liability of the threads to shear off 
is less than that of the failure of the body of the rod. 

The full strength of the rod is available when the ends are upset 
so that the section through the roots is equal to or greater than the 
section of the body of the rod. 



90. Suppose a beam supported at its extremities to carry three 
or more loads; describe the operation of finding (a) the sh3ar at 
any point; (b) the maximum moment. 

W, We W3 W4. 

<- 




Let I = span in feet. 
TFj, W2, etc., = concentrations at a, 6, c and d, expressed in 
pounds. 
Xj, cCg, cCg, x^ = feet from B^. 

Then B^ = j (W^ t^^ + W^ x^ + W^ x^ -f TT^ xj. 



(a) And shear at a 



I 






" " c ^ J?i 

or " '' d = B^. 
That is, the shear at any point is equal to the algebraic sum of all 
the forces to either side of that point (calling upward forces plu3 
and downward minus). 

(&) Moment at a = i^^ (I — a;^), 

" *^ 5 = R^ (l - X,) - F, {x^ - X,), 

" " c=R^{l-x,)-W^{x,-x^)-W,{x,~x^\ 

« " d = i2, X ^4- 



62 

That is, the moment at any section is equal to the algebraic sum 
of the moments of all the forces on either side about that section. 
The largest of these is the maximum moment. 

Note. — The shears and moments due to weight of beam itself 
have been neglected, but in a heavy girder they are added to those 
found above. 

91. Explain how an I-beam is designed for uniform load. Ex- 
planation of handbook table will receive proper consideration. 

Let I = length of span. 

w = uniform load per foot of beam, including its own weight. 

Jc == allowable fiber stress, about 12 000 lb. per sq. in. for 
bridge work ; 16 000 lb. per sq. in. for building work. 

s = section modulus of beam or girder, as given in hand- 
book. 

w IP 
Then M = — — = external bending moment. 

o 

= k s, the resisting moment of beam. 
In the table of "Properties of I-beams," look up that 'value of 
s which, multiplied by h^ will most nearly equal the value of M 
found above. The product, Jc s, must not be less than M. The 
.beam whose section modulus answers the above requirements should 
be selected. 

92. What are the maximum moment and reactions of a girder 
20 ft. long with a concentrated load in center of 15 000 lb. and a 
uniform load of 2 000 lb. per lin. ft. of girder? 

2 000 C^O^^ 

Moment for uniform load = ^^^^-^ = 100 000 ft.-lbs. 

b 

" " concentrated load = — j = 75 000 ft.-lbs. 

Maximum moment at center = 175 000 '•' " 

2 000 X 20 
Reaction due to uniform load = '^ = 20 000 lbs. 

" " to concentrated load = -^ — - = 7 500 " 

Maximum reaction = 27 500 ^' 

93. What is the required net section of lower chord in above 
girder if the effective depth is 2 ft. and the allowable tension is 
12 000 lb. per sq. in. ? 

^ • -, . l^'") 000 ^ ^^ . 

Required net section = o v 1 9 000 = ^-"9 sq. in. 



63 

94. State how you would compute the necessary number, spiacing, 
and dimensions of stiffeners at the end of a plate girder. 

The gross cross-sectional area of the end stiffeners must be suf- 
ficient to take the reaction, allowing such an intensity per square 
inch as the specifications permit. A suitable number of stifieners 
must be used to give this gross area. In case of a heavy girder 
resting on a bearing plate or casting, the stifieners must be spaced 
so as to distribute the load as uniformly as possible on the plate or 
casting; they must be of such dimensions as to make a neat and 
workmanlike finish. 

In general, stiffeners are spaced at intervals not exceeding the 
depth of the girder, with a maximum of 5 ft. wherever the shear 
per square exceeds that allowed by the specifications. 



95. In a plate girder made up of a web, cover plates and angles, 
state how you would determine the economical lengths of the plates 
where several thicknesses are used in each fiange? 

For a girder with uniform load, 

Let A = total cross-sectional area of flange at center, in- 
cluding plates and angles (square inches). 
a = cross-sectional area of outside plate in sq. in. 
a' = area of next plate. 
a" — area of third plate ; etc. 
L = length of outside plate in ft. 
L' = " of next " " " 

L" = " of third " " " etc. 

I — clist. c. to c. of bearings, in ft. 



Then L = I |«_-f 1 ft. 



-J 



1ft. 



L' = I 



Ja + g' + g' _^ 2 ft. (for inmost plate). 



For girders with concentrated loading, the graphical method of 
getting the lengths of cover plates is the best. 

Note. — The graphical method is well explained in Kidder's 
"Architect's Handbook." 



96. State how you would compute the number of rivets required 
in any given length of the flanges of a plate girder. 



64 



Let F^ = flange stress at J.. 

6 =. smallest bearing value of 1 rivet, 
s = " shearing " " 1 " 

n = number of rivets required in each flange between A 
and B. 



Then 



F. 



If s is smaller than 5 we have 

F,-F, 

n = —^ -' 

s 

To get the flange stress at any point, divide the B. M. at that 

point by the effective depth of the girder. 

97. Design a splice for a tension flange of a plate girder composed 
of two 6 by 6 by i-in. angles and one 14 by J-in. cover. 

The best method of splicing the flange of a plate girder is to splice 
the cover plate at a different point than the angles, and in splicing 
the angles the single lengths of angle on one side of the web are 
made to break joints with the lengths on the other side. This 
method insures the greatest amount of continuous material at any 
splicing point. In some cases it may be necessary or expedient to 
splice both the angles and the cover plate at the same point. As- 
sume that the whole flange is spliced at the same point. 



k + t •^! t -^ -» 




Flange' 



\lCov.l4''x 






Flange \ ^ L'^ 0" X 6" X V Splice ^ ^ L's 5" X 5" X H X 3' 0' 
*= 1 1 Cov. ^'" ^' "' ^ 



14" X V 



1 Cov. 14" X V X 3' 6' 



65 

Allow 16 000 lbs. per sq. in. tension in flange. 
20 000 lbs. " " " bearing on rivets. 
10 000 lbs. " '' *' shear on rivets. 
Then bearing of |" shop rivet on f pi. = 8 750 lbs. 
u u 1" u u a I" u = 6 570 " 

single shear " |" " " =6 010 " 

To splice the 14' X f cov. pi. use a 14" X f pi. giving the same 
capacity. 

2 — Q" X 6 " X i" L's = 11-50 sq. in. gross. 

4 X i" X 1" = 2.00" " taken out for 2 rivets in each 

angle. 

2 _ G" X 6" X V L's = 9.5 " " net. 

2 — 5" X 5" X ^^" L's = 12.84 " " gross. 

4 X ^Y X 1" 2.75 " '' taken out for 2 rivets in each 

anirle. 



2 — 5 " X 5" X H" L's = 10-09 " " net. 

As 2 — 5" X 5" X I" angles give only 9.22 sq. in. net, use 2 — 5" 
X 5" X ^Y angles to splice the 2 — 6" X 6" X Y flange angles. 
Net area of cover plate or of splice plate is 12" X ^ " = 6 sq. in. 
6 X 16 000 = 96 000 lbs. capacity of splice. 
96 000 = 16 rivets needed in cover splice. 
TOlO 

(The drawing shows 16 rivets.) 
Net area of 2 — 6" X 6" X f L's is 9.5 sq. in. 9.5 X 16 000 = 
152 000 lbs. capacity of the angles. 

The rivets in the angle splices are in double shear in the vertical 
legs, and in single shear in the horizontal legs. These values are each 
less than the corresponding bearing values. 

14 rivets @ 6 010 lbs. = 84 140 lbs. 
7 rivets @ 12 020 lbs. = 84 140 " 



Total capacity of rivets in single splices = 168 280 " 
As the rivets in the angle splice have to carry only 152 000 lbs., 
the above arrangement is on the side of safety. A smaller number of 
rivets would not give as convenient an arrangement of rivet holes, 
and would give practically no saving in material of splice. 

98. Wliat advantage has an 18-in. I of 55 lb. per ft. over a 15-in. 
I of equal weight? If 15-in. I will carry the load, what is the 
advantage in its use? 

An 18-in. I, 55 lb., has a greater section modulus than a 15-in. 
X of 55 lb.; it can therefore stand a greater bending moment; that 



6C 



is to say, for a given span it can carry a heavier load, or for a given 
load it can span a greater distance. 

The advantage of using a 15-in. I is that it will make a shal- 
lower floor and will therefore give a greater vertical clearance. 

99. What is the least bearing a beam should have on masonry ? 

Every wooden beam, except header and tail-beams, must rest at 
one end 4 in. in the wall or upon a girder. 

Steel beams must have enough bearing on the masonry so as not 
to exceed the safe bearing pressure. 

100. In a through truss how are the stresses in the diagonals be- 
tween the upper chords transmitted to the masonry at the ends? 




The above is a plan of the upper lateral and the portal bracing. 
The upper lateral system is calculated as a truss with panel load- 
ings equal to the wind pressure per panel, the ends of the truss being 



at U^ and TJ^ 



Let R^ and R^ be the reactions of this truss. These reactions 
are carried down to the masonry by means of the portal bracing, 
causing bending in the end posts ; i R^ is considered acting at L^ and 



L^, and i R, 



at L^ and L^. 



Anchor bolts at the points L^, L^, L^ 



and Lg take the shears due to these reactions and transmit them to 
the masonry. 



101. {a) What are the largest sections of I-beams, channel and 
angle, rolled? {h) What the lightest weight of 20-in. and 18-in. 
beams? 

(a) 24-in. I, 100 lb. per lin. ft. 

15-in. I, 55 lb. per lin. ft. 
8 by 8-in. by 1| in. angle, 56.9 lb. per lin ft. 
{h) 20-in. Z, 65 lb. per lin. ft. 

18-in. I, 55 lb. per lin. ft. 



67 



102. Show by sketches the standard connection angle of a 15-in. 
and a 10-in. I-beam. 



• i I • 

^ I I • 

• ! I • 



■^^^ 



O O 

o o 
o o 






->- fs'i 






m 



WW 



X O'JO" 

•^ Rivets 
4 



• 1 I • 

• ! ! • 



> 



o o 
o o 



^5^ 



10" I 



X 0'5" '^ 
^ ffivefs 



103. Sketch standard angle connections for 24-, 15- and 8-in. X^' 



« 1 j • 

€ ] I • 

• I I • 

• I I • 






24" I 



X l'6" 

l"''Fivet6 
4 



\ 



^k 



For 15 and 8-in. I's see Question No. 102; the standard connec- 
tions for 8-in. I and 10-in. IE are the same. 



104. In designing a roof truss, what are the loads to be considered 
and how are these determined? 



G8 

I. — Dead load. 

(a) Weight of truss, purlins and bracing. 

(?)) Weight of roof covering. 

(c) Weight of loading attached to roof, if any. 

II. — Live load. 
(a) Snow load. 
(&) Wind load. 

(c) Weight of crowd of people, if roof is flat and is to be 
used as a roof garden or for similar purposes. 

In 1 a, h and c are found by calculating the actual weights of 
materials used, the weight of truss and purlins being obtained from 
a similar existing roof, if possible; or tentative values are used, the 
roof designed and its weight then calculated, this procedure being 
employed several times if necessary until the weight of roof as de- 
signed agrees fairly well with the assumed weight. 

In II the snow load is determined by the climatic conditions in 
the locality where the. roof is to be used. In the vicinity of New 
York City about 12 to 15 lb. per sq. ft. is a fair value. 

The wind load is taken out of empirical tables on the force of 
winds calculated for the locality. It is considered acting normal to 
the roof and on one-half the roof at a time. (For a horizontal wind 
pressure of 40 lb. per sq. ft., the highest usually employed in this 
country, the normal pressure on a roof sloping 5° is about 5 lb. and 
increases for different slopes becoming 40 lb. for a roof sloping 60°. 
These values are obtained from Unwin's formula.) 

For wooden trusses the snow and wind loads are usually com- 
bined and considered as a vertical load of about 20 lb. per sq. ft. in 
the northern part of the United States. 

The weight of a crowd of persons varies from about 80 to 100 lb. 
per sq. ft. 



105. Given a roof truss with rise equal to one-third of span, span 
equal to 50 ft., trusses 16 ft. apart, total load 'over the whole surface 
30 lb. per sq. ft. of horizontal projection. Design truss. 

Assume outline of truss as shown. 16 X 50 X 30 = 24 000 lb., 

24 000 
total load on truss. — = 3 000 lb. panel load. 

8 

Draw stress diagram as shown; it is not necessary to complete 
the whole diagram for symmetrical trusses with uniform vertical 
loading. The hanger E E is not a member of the truss an4 there- 
fore does not appear in the stress diagram. 



60 




. -i-JSjlOO ■f-/3,400 •^11,'SOO ^Splice Chord here mfh £,d'k07^ 

I FlshP/afes usingf ej"B(?/fs \ 

■^ = Tenshrr 

- = Compression 




Allow 800 lbs. per sq. in. compression on Y. P. timber. 
Allow 1 200 lbs. per sq. in. tension on Y.'P. timber. 
xUlow 12 000 lbs. per sq. in. tension on wrought iron. 

18 900 



A JE, 



800 



23.6 sq. in. required. Use 1 — 6" X 6" Y. P. 



timber for whole length of rafter. This allows for cutting. 

E 0, H-I5? = 13.1 sq. in. required. Use 4" X 6" Y. P. for the 
1 200 ^ 

whole bottom chord in two lengths spliced near centre. 



KL 



5 000 
800 



6.3 sq. in. required. 2" X 3" would do; 4" X 6" 



is better, making 



42. 



KK', ' = 0.74 sq. in. required. Use 1" round rod with 
' 12 000 

ends upset. 



70 
a" J, r-^^-^r^r^ = 0.25 sq. in, required. Use |-in. round rod, ends 



upset 

F 

upset 



1 600 
F G, -.2 QQfj — 0-13 sq. in. required. Use i-in. round rod, ends 



106. What is "shear" in a truss with horizontal chords, and how 
is it determined at any point ? 

The shear at any point in a truss mth horizontal chords is the 
algebraic sum of all the external vertical forces acting on the truss 
to either side of the point. 

To determine the shear, take the algebraic sum of all the vertical 
loads to either side of the point, calling the reaction plus and the 
panel loads minus. The shears calculated for either side will be 
numerically equal, but of opposite sign. 



107. (a) What is the object of camber in a bridge truss? (h) 
State how you would provide the proper amount in any given case. 

(a) Camber is given to a bridge truss so that the lower chord 
will not deflect below a horizontal line when the maximum load comes 
upon the bridge. The object is largely a matter of appearance. 

(h) The usual rule for highway and railroad bridges is to give 
the panels of the top chord an excess of length in the proportion of 
^ in. to every 10 ft. The theoretical length of the diagonals must 
then be recalculated for the new dimensions given to the top chord. 

In some cases a deflection diagrani is worked out after the bridge 
has been tentatively designed, and then suitable changes are made in 
the lengths of the members to bring the lower chord horizontal under 
full live load. 



108. What is the best way for attaching horizontal diagonals to 
the upper chords of a truss? Give sketch. 

If the diagonals consist of angles they should be riveted either 
directly to the top chord or to a gusset plate attached to the chord. 
If they consist of rods, the rods may be attached to an angle iron 



71 



riveted to the top chord and stiffened by other iron angles, or the 
rod may be held in place by a pin passing through a gusset plate 
attached to the chord. 




109. Give sketch of a well-proportioned eye-bar head and pin 
with relative dimensions. 



Y 



/?Ab 




Let w = wddth of bar in inches. 
Then t =^ \iv to ^ w (thickness of bar). 
d = 0.75 w to w =^ diameter of pin. 



B 



d 



-f (0.75 ic to 0.9 w) = radius of portion ABC. 
circular arc E A is tano^ent to C B A and to JV E. 



110. Make a neat sketch for (a) cast-iron separator for 15-in. 
beams; (h) clevis; (c) sleeve-nut; (d) turn-buckle for l^-in. rod. 



72 



(aV-(o 






(wfo 



)---i 

)-■:< 



c.-tc.of I 
beams 




m^ 




m^ 



Use^^Bolts 



3 (^)l 



SZU (d) 




111. How would yoii secure transverse or wind bracing in a build- 
ing where cast-iron columns are used? 

Fasten the bracing to lugs cast on the columns. 

112. What is the object of tie rods? Describe or show by sketch 
how they should be arranged for several beams of 20 ft. span. 

The object is to take the thrust of the arch flooring, built be- 
tween two adjacent beams. 

Holes for tie rods should be placed as near the thrust of the arch 
as possible. The distance between tie rods in floors should not ex- 
ceed 8 ft. nor 8 times the depth of beams 12 in. and under. 

The distance between holes for rods on opposite sides of beams 
is about 3 in. horizontally. 



113. What points must be considered in designing floor construc- 
tion and connections? 

1. The beams must be spaced so as to fit standard fire-proof con- 
struction. 

2. The beams should be as shallow as possible so as not to give 
too deep a floor. 

3. Deflection of beams under load must not exceed -^V i^- P^^' ^*- 
of span if plastered ceiling is fastened to them. 

4. The beams must be able to carry the heaviest loads that may 
come upon them. 



73 

5. Standard connections should be used wherever possible, and in 
any case the connection must be strong enough to take the end shear 
on the beam. 

114. Is it sufficient in designing a floor to consider only the sup- 
porting power of the beams, or is there a limit to the loading for 
some other cause, and if so, what? 

No. The load on beams is also limited by the danger of the 
ceiling cracking. In plastered ceilings this has been found to occur 
when the deflection exceeds ^io^f the distance between supports, or 
-jjj in. per ft. of span. 

115. In making a working drawing for a casting, such as a bed 
plate or other design of somewhat complicated form, what must be 
done to insure sound castings, in so far as the draftsman can aid in 
so doing? 

All parts of the casting should be made of nearly the same thick- 
ness so that the casting can cool off uniformly. 

The casting should be designed so that cores can be easily re- 
moved. 

Allow "draft" of about I in. per ft. for shrinkage. 

All corners should be filleted. 

116. In a casting, what is draft? How much is it proper to al- 
low ? Wliat other points are to be observed in designing castings ? 

"Draft" is a taper allowed in castings so as to facilitate removal 
from the moulds. This allowance is for shrinkage in the material 
as it cools, and is equal to about -| in. per ft. for cast iron. 

See also Question 115. 

117. What are the least proper clearances to allow between (a) 
8-in. pin and pin-hole; (h) 2-in. pin and pin-hole? 

(a) sV-in. 

118. What is the (a) "elastic limit"; (h) the "ultimate resist- 
ance'^; (c) the coefficient of elasticity? 

(a) The elastic limit is the highest intensity to which any ma- 
terial can be strained in tension without giving it a permanent 
stretch. 

(h) The ultimate resistance is the highest intensity to which any 
material is strained, just before failure. 



74 ' 

(c) Let p = intensity of tension, to which any material is sub- 
jected (up to the elastic limit). 
I = elongation per unit of length, for above tension. 
JE = coefficient of elasticity. 

Then j^ = |. 

119. Discuss the value of wrought-steel and cast-iron columns. 

Cast-iron columns are easily manufactured in almost any shape, 
cheap, and well adapted for architectural effects. 

However, they are unreliable as to uniform section and strength, 
may have internal strains and blowholes, and it is difficult to attach 
good wind bracing to them. 

Wrought-steel columns are very reliable as to strength and are 
lighter than cast-iron columns of same capacity, well adapted for all 
kinds of connections and stronger for eccentric loading than cast- 
iron columns. 

They are more expensive than cast-iron columns, and entail more 
work in manufacture, 

120. {a) What assumptions 'are made in the "common theory" of 
flexure? (&) What is the formula for bending as given by this 
theory ? 

{a) Two assumptions are made: Pirst, that all plane sections 
normal to the neutral axis remain plane after flexure. Second, that 
the intensity of either the tensile or compressive stress in any sec- 
tion normal to the neutral axis of the beam varies directly as the 
distance from the axis. 

(I) M = ^, where, 

M = bending moment at any section of a beam, girder or 
column subjected to transverse loading. 

/ = Moment of inertia at that section. 

d = distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber at the 
section. 

K = intensity of stress at the extreme fiber. 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN 3 VOLUMES 



Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 

TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 
Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER 
Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN, and INSPECTOR 



VOL. III. PART II 

Inspector 

Masonry, Building, Steel, Regulating, Grading 

AND Paving, Sewers 



INDEX 

dings, / 
irpentry . 

Examination Papers^ Regulating,' Grading' "and 



r Buildings, Masonry and 
Previous | ^Carpentry pp. 4 to 



Steel pp. 9 to 13 

I litviug yy. 14 LU i^y 

I Sewers pp. 1 5 to 20 

f Buildings, Masonry and 

Typical Questions i ^^ Carpentry Q i to 1 33 

. j Steel Q 134 to 173 

AND Answers i Regulating, Grading and 

Paving Q 1 74 to 196 

Sewers Q 1 97 to 222 



NEW YORK: 

The Engineering News Publishing Company 

1906 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engineering News Publishing Company 



PEEFACE. 

In the "Previous Examination Papers" which have been in- 
cluded in this book, the questions may not, in all cases, be identical 
in wording with those actually given at the examinations, as copies 
of the original papers are not readily procurable, but they embody 
the substance of the questions asked. 

In the section devoted to "Typical Questions and Answers," the 
answers indicate in a general way only what is required of the 
candidate, and are not intended to be perfect, as reasonable variance 
of opinion may exist as to what is the best answer in many cases, 
owing to differences in interpretation of the questions and in edu- 
cation and experience of the candidate. Answers to many ques- 
tions given at other examinations bearing upon the work of in- 
spectors have been included in this part for the benefit of the 
candidate. A number of these are taken from Vol. H of the Manual 
of Examinations. 

In order to perpetuate the value of the book blank leaves have 
been inserted after the "Previous Examination Papers," allowing 
for the convenient addition of new sets, and the "Typical Questions 
and Answers" have been interleaved to provide space for notes, 
sketches and additions. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



BUILDmG INSPECTOE— MASONKY AND CARPENTKY. 



Technical. 

1. Describe the characteristics of good concrete for foundation, 
including method of selecting the materials, mixing and laying them : 
(a) Size and shape of stone; (h) quality of sand; (c) condition of 
cement; (d) manner of mixing; (e) manner of putting in place. 

2. What preparations do the masons make for the setting of iron 
beams ? 

3. Describe the process of setting a heavy support and massive 
brick pier, capable of supporting very heavy loads: (a) Dressing 
of the stone; (h) laying the mortar; (c) placing the stone; (d) how 
can you tell if the stone is solidly bedded? (e) what should be done 
to prepare the top of the pier and the bed of the stone before the 
mortar is used? 

4. Where an iron girder is used instead of a wall to support the 
ends of wooden floor beams, what mason work does the law require ? 

5. If piles should be driven without reaching solid bottom, how 
would you know whether they were able to support the wall above? 

6. Why is it important to see that a footing is no narrower and 
no wider than the plans call for? 

7. Is it dangerous to make a footing too wide? If so, why? 

8. If a concrete footing were made too wide for safety, how 
might it easily be made safe? 

9. Suppose an excavation were to be dug below the footings of 
an adjoining building. State fully what is required in such cases 
in the way of protection and new work. 

10. AVliat peculiarity is required for mortar of foundation walls 
which is not needed above ground? 

11. Name three ways of securing face-brick to the backing. 

12. Describe the arrangement of floor beams about a chimney- 
breast: (a) Location of header; (h) location of trimmer; (c) how 
are the beams to be framed together? (d) what size should the 
header and trimmer be? 



INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. f 5 

i 

13. Suppose a white pine post of moderate height to be used 
temporarily for the support of a load, what load would you'Consider 
it safe to apply per square inch of its cross-section ? 

Arithmetic. 

1. Add 18 ft. 8 in.; 24 ft. 11 in.; 13 ft. 7 in.; IT ft. 5 in.; 34 
ft. 6 in.; 19 ft. 11 in. 

2. Subtract 189 ft. 9 in. from 304 ft. 3 in. 

3. Multiply 12 ft. 9 in. by 319 ft. 

4. If a floor 125 ft. 5 in. long is covered with tiles, each 9 in. 
long, how many tiles are there in a line? 

5. Find the cubical contents of a wall 310 ft. 7 in. long, 10 
ft. high, and 12 ft. 8 in. broad. 



BUILDING lA^SPECTOE— MASONEY AND CAEPENTRY. 

Oral. 

JSTote: The oral examination consists of the following questions 
in reference to diagrams placed before the applicant: 

1. What is the extreme depth of this foundation below the curb? 
(See foundation.) 

2. What is the width of concrete at base at front of area inside 
of curb? 

3. How are the wall columns at the sides of the building sup- 
ported at the base? (See cross-section — rear elevation.) 

4. What are small white squares in the sidewalks? (See floor 
plans.) 

5. What are the two larger white openings shown in plans near 
right front corner. (Vents.) 

6. Wliat are the partitions around elevators and stairs con- 
structed of? 

7. Point out the different materials and name them. 

8. What is this a drawing of? (Blue-print of cantilever.) 

9. Whiich of the columns supports the side wall? 

10. 'Describe the centre columns in rear wall of the tenth story 
of this building. 



b INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

INSPECTOK OF MASONRY AND CARPENTRY. 

April 14th, 1904. 

1. (a) What is a curtain wall? (h) Explain requirements of 
the section of the Building Code which refers to same. 

2. (a) What is a row-lock arch? (h) Explain the differences 
from other arches, (c) Is it as strong? Give reasons. 

3. (a) Why are floor beams beveled? (h) How much are they 
beveled? (c) How often are they anchored to walls? 

4. Describe the methods of protecting iron columns against fire. 

5. Describe two systems of fireproof floors. 

6. (a) Describe system of fireproof furring. (h) Explain 
method of application. 

7. When piles or timbers are used for foundations, what im- 
portant requirements are to be observed? 

8. (a) What is dry-rot? (h) What precaution should be taken 
against it? (c) How can it be remedied? 

9. In case floor beams are overloaded in a building under con- 
struction, has the inspector any duties, and what are they? 

10. What are inverted arches; when and how are they used? 

11. Suppose an excavation shows a steep rock, what is to be 
done in reference to foundation? 

12. What is a trimmer arch? Should centering be removed 
after arch is built? Give explanation. 

13. (a) What are the general defects of lumber, and how do they 
impair the streng'th of the material? (h) If a beam has a loose knot 
on one side, should it be placed on upper or lower side of beam ? 

Mathematics. 

1. Addition: 1^, 0.005, 17/19, 1.45. 

2. Division: 0.4934 by 0.00456. 

3. Calculate number of cubic feet in a' wall of given dimensions. 

4. Compute area of a wall of given dimensions? 

Oral Examination. — Questions on plans of a model building, 
iron construction, quality of lumber, quality of stone. 



INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 7 

INSPECTOE OF MASONEY. 

1. Where granite is to be used for a massive wall or a dam, how 
would you inspect the stone as to its quality in everything which 
may affect the durability or its power to bear loads, and what would 
you look for? 

2. What defects would you look for (in stone for the same uses) 
in (a) limestone, (h) sandstone? 

3. State the differences between (a) good and poor brick, and 
how they are examined; (h) the same for sand. 

4. (a) Having no testing machine, state how you can satisfy 
yourself that a barrel of cement is in good condition and safe to use. 
{h) How would you place cement in barrels where no sheds are 
available, so as to prevent probable damage? 

5. (a) Suppose that in excavating for the foundation of a wall 
to carry a heavy load, a ledge of rock is struck, what examination 
would you make? .(&) Suppose the rock to be steeply inclined, what 
would you require before starting the wall? 

6. Suppose a wall is to be founded on earth and the exca- 
vating is completed. What would you do in preparation before 
placing anything upon the earth? 

7. Can concrete for a foundation be placed in water where to 
do otherwise would be very difficult, and if so, how is it done and 
what precautions are taken? 

8. Describe clearly the different kinds of (a) rubble masonry; 
(h) ashlar work; (c) six-cut work. 

9. (a) For the strongest and tightest work, what thickness of 
bed-joint do you think best? Give reasons for your opinion. 

10. To get the best adhesion of cement to stone, and the tight- 
est work, what are the essential things to be attended to in laying 
the stone? 

11. How are the very thin joints made in laying up fine cut 
stones in the fronts of buildings? 

12. When the beds of stones only are pitched true, and joints 
half an inch are provided for, describe the operation of setting the 
stones in such a way that you are certain to fill all space in the 
beds with mortar? 

13. Describe the face bond you would require in heavy stone- 
work courses one to two feet thick, particularly as to horizontal 
distance between vertical joints in adjacent courses? 

14. Where the stones in such a job are cut full to dimensions 
at the back as well as at the front, how would you fill the vertical 
joints to get the best job, supposing them to be about i in. thick? 



8 INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

INSPECTOK OF MASONKY. 

1. Suppose you were at work with no opportunity of reaching a 
testing machine, and you had to decide whether the cement fur- 
nished was fit for use, state every test you could make, and why 
you would make it. 

2. Suppose a cement to be in good order, state two important 
characteristics which affect its strength, and its durability. 

3. The proportions of the cement, sand, and gravel to be used 
being given, describe the very best method of mixing them into 
concrete. 

4. Give all the reasons why it is improper to dress or trim stone 
on a wall which is being constructed. 

5. (a) Why can you not lay stone satisfactorily when it is rain- 
ing? (b) What is the effect of trying to set a stone which is 
frosted ? 

6. If obliged to set stone in freezing weather, state everything 
that can be done to obtain reasonably good work. 

7. When concrete in considerable amount is to be used in im- 
portant works, and it is desirable to get the most solid and imper- 
meable job, state every precaution to be taken in every part of the 

work (except for mixing), including subsequent care and treatment, 
until it is set hard. 

8. In setting a massive stone (weighing 10 tons) with rough beds, 
state everything you would do to secure impervious joints, and the 
best possible adhesion of the mortar to the stone. 

9. Understanding the term grout to mean a mixture of cement 
or cement and sand mixed thin enough to run freely, what do you 
think of its use in filling the joints of masonry? If there are any 
objections to its use, what are they ? 

10. Where an important dam is to be built of rubble masonry, 
describe in a general way the bonding of the stone to make the 
strongest and tightest dam. 

11. (a) When a heavy wall is to be built and the trench is dug, 
how would you examine the bottom before starting the work? (h) 
How might the examination affect the subsequent work? 

12. Show or describe three ways of taking hold of a stone to 
hoist it. 

13. Describe (a) what is called rock-faced masonry; (h) pointed 
work; (c) six-cut work; (d) what is meant by scabbing? 

14. Describe (a) pean hammer and its use; (h) bush hammer 
and its use. 

15. Describe how improper work is done in (a) six-cut work; 
(&) pointed work. 



INSPECTOR PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 9 

mSPECTOK OF STEEL. 
Salary, $1,200. January 9, 1904. 

1. (a) Describe the difference in the appearance of fractures of 
good steel and of good cast-iron, (h) Also how both differ from that 
of good wrought iron. 

2. Describe the appearance of each of the above when the ma- 
terial is poor. 

3. State what a drift pin is for, and whether it has any effect 
upon the strength of the material in which it is used, and what that 
effect is. 

4. (a) Describe carefully the whole operation of driving a rivet 
properly, beginning with the heating, (h) Describe every way in 
which improper work is done in driving a rivet, (c) State how you 
would test a lot of riveted work. 

5. (a) Describe the proper way of testing thoroughly the thick- 
ness of a cast-iron column, (h) Describe carefully the method of 
testing the soundness of a cast-iron column, (c) What parts of a 
cast-iron column require special care in examination to prevent 
accident ? 

6. (a) Suppose a cast-iron column to be J in. too short, what 
would you do? (h) Suppose such a column to have one of the ends 
not turned square, what would you do? 

7. (a) Make pencil or pen sketches of a wrought iron column 
in front of a building showing front and side views, giving clearly 
the details for the support of the wall, say in the second story. 
(h) Show clearly also the method of splicing such a column. 

8. Where, in a detail drawing, a number of small circles are 
shown at some parts all filled in with hatching, or entirely black, 
what does it mean? 

9. In setting the iron base of a large column on a masonry 
foundation, what is the very best way of doing it to secure a 
thorough bearing? 

10. As you know, in building very high buildings, it is custom- 
ary to run the iron work up and store large quantities of material 
upon the floors during construction. Are floors overloaded in 
this way, and if so, what would cause you to think so? 

11. Would you consider it necessary to make any inspection of 
girders, posts or other iron work, after delivery on the ground be- 
fore erection? If so, state exactly and fully what that inspection 
should be. 



10 . INSPECTOR PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

12. Suppose that during erectiou certain rivet holes do not come 
"fair": (a) What might it indicate in the case of a floor beam? 
(h) How should such errors of every kind be corrected? 

13. Is there any difference in the strength of riveting done in 
the shops and on the work? If so, which is the stronger and why? 

14. (a) Where bolts are to be used permanently in a piece of 
work, how is the strongest job obtained? (h) Which is the stronger, 
bolting or riveting, and why? 

15. Are any precautions against wind ever necessary in the 
erection of ironwork in a building, and if so, what ? 

Mathematics. 

1-2. A bar of iron 3 ft. long and 1 in. square weighs about 10 lb. 
and steel weighs 2% more. Assuming this, calculate the weight 
of a plate girder 25 ft. long and 30 in. deep, which is made up of 
a web plate i in. thick, 2 cover plates each 8 in. wide and | in. thick, 
four angles each weighing 8 lb. per ft., and, say (including ends 
and intermediates) 12 vertical stiffeners weighing 5 lb. per ft. 

3. A brick wall resting on a girder measures 18 ft. long, 13 ft. 
6 in. high and 15 in. thick. In it there is a window 9 ft. 6 in. high 
and 6 ft. 3 in. wide. Assuming brickwork to weigh 115 lb. per cu. 
ft., what load does the girder sustain? 

4. The iron beams in a warehouse floor span 16 ft. and each 
weighs 40 lb. per ft. The spans between the beams are 5 ft. 6 in. 
The arches weigh 40 lb. per sq. ft., and a load of 270 lb. per sq. 
ft. in addition is to be provided for. What is the total load on one 
floor beam? 

5. Add 3 ft. 7i in., 9 ft. 21 in., 12 ft. H in., 27 ft., 42 in., 14 
ft. Ill in. 



INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 11 

INSPECTOK OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 



Technical. 



February 15, 1906. 

1. In the storing of structural steel on the ground prior to 
erection, what general rules should be observed? 

2. In the handling of structural steel, unloading, storing or 
assembling, what must be carefully guarded against ? 

3. State what you would do if in assembling you found a mem- 
ber bent or otherwise injured. 

4. Describe an erection sheet and state how you would use it. 

5. (a) What is falsework? (h) What is it used for in bridge 
work? (c) Is falsework employed in the erection of all bridges? 
(d) Where falsework is being used, and a considerable part of the 
bridge has been assembled on it, what particular feature of the false- 
work would you carefully inspect, and how often would you make 
the inspection? 

6. Describe in detail the usual order of assembling the parts of 
a "through truss" riveted highway bridge. 

7. In assembling bridge members in the structure, is it per- 
missible where connections are "tight fits" to use force to properly 
enter the members, and, if it is, how should the force be applied? 

8. What must be particularly noted in assembling connections 
regarding the surfaces which become inaccessible after assembly? 

9. How should large steel pins be driven in connections and how 
should they be protected? 

10. What do you understand by the term "fitting up" as applied 
to a connection to be riveted? State briefly the matters which 
should receive careful attention in "fitting up." 

11. What is (a) the legitimate use of a drift-pin in fitting up? 
(h) Is the use of a drift -pin allowable in bringing holes to match? 

12. In "fitting up" an important connection, what proportion of 
open holes should be filled up and how? 

13. In the splicing of chords, what distinction would you make 
in fitting up (a) splices in compression and (h) splices in tension? 

14. At a connection fitted up for riveting if the holes do not 
match how should the defect be remedied ? How much of a misfit of 



12 INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

rivet holes may be properly allowed without ordering new plates for 
the splices or connection? 

15. (a) Name in the order of their efficiency in securing tight 
rivets the three principaL methods of driving rivets, (h) What are 
the main objects to be attained in driving rivets to secure good 
work ? 

16. (a) Describe the methods by which "field" rivets are gen- 
erally heated, (b) To what extent should they be heated? (c) How 
should they be heated to produce good work? (d) How would you 
determine if a rivet was "burnt"? (e) Would you permit the use 
of a rivet that has been reheated several times? (f) What should 
be done with a rivet that "sparks" or "spits" on being taken from 
the fire? (g) Should a rivet be worked after it has become black? 

17. Name and briefly describe the tools used in field riveting. 

18. How would you determine when a rivet was tight? (Answer 
this question in detail, describing step by step the necessary pro- 
cedure) . 

19. Describe the common "scamp" methods employed to make 
loose rivets appear tight, (h) How would you detect rivets rhat 
had been tightened? (c) How would you mark defective rivets and 
how are such removed from the work? 

20. Name the different styles of rivet heads. 

21. If a bridge is being erected on falsework, when and how 
may a span be swung? 

22. (a) What should be the condition of the surface of steel 
when paint is applied? (h) What are the usual methods of clean- 
ing steel preparatory to painting? (c) What should be the condi- 
tion of the weather when paint is applied to steel? 

23. Under what circumstances, if any, . may paint which has 
been delivered at the work be "thinned"? If so, when and how 
should it be thinned? 

24. (a) State clearly and fully with what bridge and structural 
work you have been connected and in what capacity, (h) Give 
your experience in detail under the following heads: 

(a) Shop experience, (h) Field experience. 



Arithmetic. 

1. Find the sum of (a) 11 plus 135 plus 78 plus 112 plus 33. (h) 
$1817.36 plus $3114.65 plus $472.19 plus $5.15 plus $9542.37. 



INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 13 

2. (a) Find the difference between 4912 and 2615. (h) On a cer- 
tain day there were 165 rivets to be driven — on the following day 
60 were driven and 45 on the next. How many w^ere left to he 
driven ? 

3. (a) Find the produce of 23 X 45 X '^- (?>) If 8 men can do a 
piece of work in 7 days, how long will it take 2 men to do it? 

4. (a) Find the quotient of 347802 divided by 9. (b) At two 
cents per pound, how many pounds of iron can be bought for $93.33 ? 

5. What is the difference between one inch and one-tenth of a 
foot? (h) Change If inches to the decimal of a foot. 

Report. 

Write a typical form of a weekly report showing the progress of 
the work, material received, placed and condemned. 



14 INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

INSPECTOE OF KEGULATING, GKADING AND PAYING. 

1. State what you understand by the term "regulating." 

2. Where a high embankment is to be made in grading a street 
slate (a) whether it makes any difference how the material is dis- 
tributed, and if so, what the rule is. (h) Give your reasons. 

3. State fully and clearly everything to be done in preparing 
the ground surface for and laying a telford road, all but the last 
four inches — that is, all but the finishing courses. 

4. What do you understand to be the difference between ma- 
terials classified as rock and those classified as earth in paying for 
grading jobs? How is the classification determined? 

5. Describe in your own language a perfect paving block, con- 
sidering (a) its form, finish and dimensions; (h) the materials of 
which it is composed and its physical condition. 

6. Is it detrimental, in your opinion, to pave stones of different 
depth in the same row in a pavement, and if so, why? 

7. In what ways is poor work done by pavers in selecting and 
placing paving blocks? 

8. What is meant by "back ramming" and what is its object? 

9. (a) Draw lines representing a street intersection and show 
the proper way of placing paving blocks at that point, (h) State 
why it is the best way. 

10. (a) State how you can tell whether the paving pitch has 
been overheated or not. (h) What is the result of overheating on 
its wearing qualities? 

11. (a) What is the proper temperature at which asphalt should 
be brought on the work? (h) What effects are produced by its be- 
ing either too hot or too cold? State each. 

12. Which would you consider the best finish to leave on the 
surface of a concrete bed for an asphalt pavement — ^that it should 
be smooth or left rough? State your reasons. 

13. (a) In preparation of the surface of cement to receive 
binder, or of binder to receive a subsequent coat of asphalt, name two 
essential things to be guarded against, (h) State why. 

14. How may water affect a pavement after it is laid, and where 
is this effect most hkely to occur? (b) What is done to prevent 
this? 



INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 15 

15. State as nearly as you can the causes for (a) the formation 
of long cracks across an asphalt street, (h) The shoving up into 
waves, (c) The breaking up or wear in spots. 

Keport. 

You are sent to inspect where the pavement has been relaid after 
having been torn up by a railroad company. Assuming such facts 
as you please, write a report of your inspection of not less than a 
page, properly made out, and signed with your examination number 
and NOT your name. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Add 357i, $4,078.09, $.18, $769|, $.37i, $86.88, $450 and $.095. 

2. Take 3,907,482 from 8,600,401. 

3. Multiply 9,048 by 605. 

4. Divide 548,130 by 906. 

5. Find the number of cubic yards in a ditch 4 ft. 6 in. deep, 5 
ft. wide and 7 ft. 8 in. long. 



mSPECTOK OF SEWER CONSTRUCTION, 4TH GRADE. 

1. What are the essential requirements in a well-constructed 
sewer ? 

2. Suppose the top of the grade stake set at one end of a 25-ft. 
length of sewer was 13 ft. 3 in. above grade, and at the other end 
11 ft. 7 in. above grade; how would you fix your grade line? 

3. Where are headers used in a circular brick sewer and why are 
they so used? 

4. (a) Is an arch centre a full semi-circle? Show by sketch the 
construction of a centre, and how it is supported and lowered. 

5. Describe the proper method of keying a brick arch. 

6. It is necessary to rebuild 100 ft. of a 48-in. brick sewer with 
considerable flow of water through it; describe completely the 
operation. 

7. How much clearance in a trench should be allowed each side 
of a sewer to obtain good work ? 

8. Describe (a) your inspection of bricks delivered on the work 
for a sewer; and (h) the only right way of laying the same to in- 
sure tight work. 



16 INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

9. Under what conditions would you think it desirable to leave 
the sheeting in a trench, and why? 

10. What are the rules governing the insertion of spurs in brick 
sewers, as to location, direction, etc.? 

11. Describe the rules that must now be observed in laying pipe 
sewers. , 

12. How soon can filling in be done about a pipe sewer? What 
governs this? 

13. Describe a good job of tamping earth around a sewer, giving 
best arrangement of men, and other requirements. 

14. What is the best way of controlling quicksand where it is. 
met with in an excavation? 

15. (a) What is the diameter of the largest vitrified sewer pipe 
in use in the city? What is the diameter of the smallest brick 
sewers now built in the city? 



Arithmetic. 
Give all the figuring on the ruled sheets. 

1. Add 7365867 

2345678 
9876543 
2154672 
7658899 
5342544 
2534353 

2. Subtract 290987 from 320045. 

3. Multiply 78096 by 4097. 

4. Divide 2601024 by 4278. 

5-6. How many cubic yards of earth are required to fill a trench 
104 ft. long, 8 ft. high, 6 ft. broad at the bottom and 12 ft. broad 
at the top ? 

Eeport. 

Write a weekly report of at least two pages on the construction 
of a 6-ft. outlet sewer in bad ground. Give such items as you think 
should appear, including all difficulties met with during the week. 

N. B. — Sign this report with your examination number and not 
your name. 



inspector — previous examination papers. it 

Experience. 

1. What is your age? 

2. {a) Have you served an apprenticeship as a mason? (&) If 
so, state length of service and when it terminated. 

3. Have you had experience as a foreman? If so, state in fuU 
such experience, giving dates and location. 

4. Have you served as an Inspector? If so, give full details of 
this experience. 

Note. — Confusion or omission of dates and incompleteness of 
statement count against the candidate. 

5. Give the names and addresses of two persons to whom refer- 
ence may be made for verification of the above statements. 



18 INSPECTOR — ^PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

INSPECTOE OF SEWEBS AND SEWEE CONSTKUCTION. 

Technical. 

1. (a) Describe the way in which you would examine the quahty 
of sand on the work, (h) Describe the same as to whether the ce- 
ment is in good condition, (c) Describe the test you would apply 
to bricks for sewer work. 

2. Describe carefully the proper way of caring for the cement 
delivered on a work to keep it from injury. 

3. (a) How much wider should the trench for a sewer be than 
the outside diameter of sewer, in other words, how much space 
should there be? (h) What is the reason for this? 

4. Suppose the elevation given at one end of a 2 5 -ft. length of 
sewer to be 12 ft. 3 in. above grade and at the other end to be 11 
ft. 9 in., how would you fix your line so as to give correct grade at 
any point in that portion of the sewer ? 

5. Having correct grade, describe operation of preparing for 
and properly building the invert of a sewer. 

6. Describe the bond adopted in this part of the work? 

7. Are headers used in bonding the course in sewer work, and 
if so, how often and why? 

8. Is there any reason for not using headers, and if so, what is it ? 

9. Describe the complete operation of properly laying a brick 
in a sewer, giving every detail. 

10. Suppose a manhole is to be built at the intersection of a 
2-ft. sewer with a 4-ft. sewer, at what elevation should the small 
sewer enter the large and for what reason? 

11. When a sewer is to be laid through very wet ground, is any 
special watchfulness required of the inspector, and if so, what? 

12. What is the rule as to leaving off work on a brick sewer? 
Should the end be left "toothed" or "racked back," and for what 
reason ? 

13. Describe all the requirements in the proper refilling of a 
trench after a sewer has been built. 

14. State every item that sewer inspectors should note and re- 
port on regularly. 



INSPECTOR — PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 19 

INSPECTOE OF SEWEE CONNECTIONS. 
Technical. 

1. At what height must a sewer connection be inserted in a brick 
sewer ? Why do you think this necessary ? 

2. How often are spur connections made with sewers? 

3. In inserting a spur in a brick sewer, is there any rule as to 
its direction and the method of finishing the work, and if so, what 
is it? 

4. What size is the regular spur for house draining? 

5. How many houses are allowed to drain into one spur ? 

6. Are larger spurs allowed, and if so, under what rule? 

Y. Does the Inspector of Connections have any authority over 
the laying of the house sewer in the street? If so, what? Where 
does his authority end? 

8. What report as an Inspector would you make ? Give the items. 

9. How are the house connections located so that they can be 
found again? 

10. Would you think it your duty to take any notice of the con- 
dition of a sewer, or of the pavement ? 

11. Give any other details as to your duties which are not 
called for by the previous questions. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Add 1234562; 9876; 278349; 968; 7865; 2678394; 2738492. 

2. Subtract 367842 from 478096. 

3. Multiply 76954 by 4097. 

4. Divide 1676044 by 2347. ) 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 



FOR 



ENGINEERING POSITIONS 



IN THE 



SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



INSPECTOR 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



TYPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWEES. 



INSPECTOK— BUILDINGS, MASONEY, CAEPENTEY, ETC. 

1. Wliat are the duties and requirements of an Inspector on 
public work ? 

1. The Inspector should understand the plans and specifications 
of the work under his charge. 

2. He should see that all material used and work done is in con- 
formity with same. 

3. He must be a good judge of materials and workmanship. 

4. He should be punctual and steady on the work. 

5. Keep correct, jcareful" and complete records of forces em- 
ployed, material delivered, rate of progress, etc. 

6. To keep records of work condemned, materials rejected and 
reasons therefor. 

Y. To see that no rejected material goes into the work. 

8. To follow the instructions and wishes of his superior. 

9. To notify his superior of infractions of rules, poor work, errors 
or other difficulties. - . - 

10. To preserve marks set by Engineer until no longer needed. 

11. To assist Engineers or Foremen in giving line and gi'ade. 

12. He should be tactful, determined and just; protect the in- 
terests of his employer and secure as good and as rapid work as 
he can. 



2. What precautions must be taken regarding excavations? 

All excavations must be properly guarded and protected so as 
to prevent the same from becoming dangerous to life. They shall 
also be sheeted where necessary to prevent^ adjoining earth from 
caving in. Where excavations are made to 10 feet or more below 
the curb the walls of adjoining property must be shored and pre- 
served, without injury to same. 



3. When a trench for a wall has been made to the right depth 
in any kind of earth, what is the next step ? 

In earth, objectionable material should be removed and replaced 
with concrete, sand or good, firm earth. The bottom of the trench 
is leveled off to an even surface, flushed and rammed. The footing 
courses are then laid. In rock, the bottom is cleaned, stripped of 
disintegrated portions and stepped off. The masonry is then started. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 23 

4. How would you prepare the foundation for a heavy wall and 
how deep should it be excavated? 

The foundation for a heavy wall should be excavated about 3 
ft., and more if required by the character of the material, or if very 
heavy loads are to be carried. 

After excavation, the foundation should be freed from all for- 
eign and decayed matter, the hollows and poor portions being re- 
placed by good, firm soil or concrete. The bottom must be thoroughly 
wetted and compacted before the masonry is started. The trenches 
should be kept dry by pumping if necessary and any springs or 
fissures plugged up. If rock - is encountered in the foundation it 
should be stripped of loose or decayed portions and benched or 
stepped, if too smooth. Before masonry is started the surface should 
be well flushed. 

5. Would a sandy bottom be good to start a foundation on? 

Sand, when confined so as to be kept from flowing, makes a good 
foundation. ' 

6. Give the safe bearing power of gravel, good clean sand, loam, 
clay, hardpan, rock. 

Gravel 5 tons per sq. ft. 

Good, clean sand 4 " " " " 

Loam 1 " "■ " " 

Dry clay 3 " " " " 

Wet clay 2 " " " " 

Hardpan 8 " " " " 

Eock in ledges 36 " " " " 

Rock in beds 240 " " " " 

7. Describe the kind of foundations best suited to the following 
soils : 

(a) Stiff gravel. 

(h) Wet, soft mud, becoming stiff er as depth increases. 

(c) Soft mud with hard gravel 15 ft. beneath. 

(d) Wet, but confined and compact sand. 

(a) Excavate to the required depth; smooth the bottom and 
over it spread a layer of concrete to form the foundation. 

(h) Drive piles to proper bearing, cut the piles off level, build a 
timber grillage platform and place concrete upon it. Or cap the 
piles and surround with concrete. 

(c) Build a coffer-dam, or sheath the outside of foundation area; 
excavate the mud, prepare the bottom and deposit concrete. Or pro- 
ceed as in case of soft mud (h). 



24 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

(d) Deposit concrete on the prepared bed of sand previously- 
drained. 

8. Bulk in place being assumed at 100, what would be the shrink- 
age in embankment for: loam, dry; loam, wet; loam, rolled; soft 
clay; stiff clay; sand; gravel? 

The shrinkages in the embankments usually allowed for are — 

For Loam, dry 12% 

Loam, wet 10% 

Loam, rolled 15% 

Clay, soft 8% 

Clay, stiff 10% 

Sand 9% 

Gravel 8% 

9. How are walls founded on soft or yielding materials ? 

The material is excavated for two or more feet and piles driven 
to firm bearing. These piles are cut off at the same elevation, 
capped and a foundation bed of concrete deposited in the excavation 
or upon a platform erected on the piles. Upon this concrete the wall 
is built. 

If the depth of the soft material is not very great the trench 
for the wall may be excavated to a hard bottom, and the excavation 
refilled with concrete which forms the foundation bed. 

The area of the foundation bed may be increased by grillage 
construction so that even in somewhat yielding material sufficient 
area may be secured to make the wall safe. 

10. When water is being pumped from the soil in the excavation, 
how would you determine whether it is endangering surrounding 
buildings? 

Examine the water discharged by the pumps, and note whether it 
is clear or contains material from the building foundations adjacent 
to the excavation. If the water is continually charged with this 
material, the foundations may be endangered. 

11. What should be done if the soil under a certain footing were 
found to be softer than allowed for? 

The excavation should be carried down to firmer soil, and the 
spread of the footings increased. 

12. If it were found necessary to increase the area of the bottom 
excavate the mud, prepare the bottom and deposit concrete. Or pro- 
be altered, and if so, how? 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 25 

Underpin the pier, excavate under the footing, and put in 
the additional footings to obtain the required area. 

13. Who is responsible for the safety of buildings a.djoining an 
excavation ? 

Usually the contractor. The owner of the adjoining building 
whose wall does not extend to a depth of 10 feet below the curb is 
required to protect his building at his own expense, but if the exca- 
vation extends over 10 feet below the curb, then the party making 
the excavation must do all underpinning, etc., and leave the adjoin- 
ing walls practically as safe as they were before. 

14. What methods and precautions are necessary in excavating 
rock, including blasting, in vicinity of houses, and what when water- 
pipes are present? > 

The contractor should comply with all ordinances of the city. 
Before a blast is fired the rock should be covered with mats and logs. 
The prescribed explosives should be used in small charges. 

In residential districts blasts should not be fired between 8 p. M. 
and 7 a. m. No more explosive than is needed for 12 hours should 
be stored at one time on the work. It should be divided as much 
as possible, kept under lock and key, and separated from caps and 
exploders. Rock within 5 ft. of water-pipes should be removed by 
hand. 

15. Discuss briefly the methods of handling quicksand in con- 
struction. 

The methods commonly employed to handle quicksand are: 

1. By sheeting and bracing. The excavation should be made 
several feet wider than necessary allowing space for heavy sheeting. 
Above the quicksand the sheeting may be of the ordinary type, but 
extra heavy and firm. The sides of the excavation through the 
quicksand should be protected by double-wall sheeting — constructed 
of two rows of timber filled with clay, and provided with a cutting 
edge at the bottom to assist in sinking. As the lining is sunk the 
core is excavated. 

2. By solidifying the quicksand with grout or cement. Pipes are 
sunk and grout or cement powder forced into the quicksand under 
pressure, forming a mortar or concrete. By regulating the depths 
of the pipe any required mass can be solidified. 

3. By the freezing process. A series of pipes 10 inches in diame- 
ter are sunk in a circle through the overlying earth. Eight-inch 
pipes, closed at the bottom, are sunk inside the 10-in., and smaller 
pipes open at bottom are placed in the 8-in. pipes. A freezing mix- 



26 INSPECTOR— QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

ture is then forced through one set of pipes, returning by the other, 
thus solidifying the surrounding mass of quicksand, which can then 
be removed in the usual way. 



16. Suppose a dam is to be founded on rock, and on uncovering 
the rock it is found to be seamy, with water coming up at points; 
what would you do ? Suppose there is a spring with considerable 
head, what can be done? 

1. Remove the disintegrated portion of the rock, and pack quick- 
setting neat cement or a rich mortar in the seams (previously en- 
larged for the purpose), or, if necessary, pump grout into the seam 
until the flow is stopped. 

2. In the second case, tap the spring and lead it away through 
an iron pipe to the down-stream side of the dam; or, tap the spring 
with an iron pipe, carrying the latter up vertically with the masonry 
until the water rises no higher. If possible, the spring should then 
be drained by pumping, and grout should be forced in under pres- 
sure to seal it. 



17. What precautions are to be taken for the health of assistants 
or laborers working under pneumatic pressure at a depth of 75 ft.? 

Proper ventilation should be maintained. Carbonic acid gas not 
to exceed one-tenth of 1%. Noise-deadening devices should be used. 
Fumes from blasts must be rapidly removed. Ample locks of ap- 
proved pattern must be provided. Suitable quarters should be pro- 
vided near the shaft where men can wash, bathe, change clothing, 
and be warmed on coming out of compressed air. Hot coffee should 
be obtainable at all times, and a physician must be in attendance. A 
compressed-air hospital lock should be provided in case men are at- 
tacked by caisson disease. 

18. What must be the size of piles for foundations and how 
spaced ? 

Piles for walls, piers, etc., must be at least 5 in. in diameter at the 
small end, 10 in. at the butt-end, spaced 30 in. apart or more, and 
driven to a solid bearing. 



19. What load may be placed upon a pile ? 

No pile shall take more than forty thousand pounds. 



INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 27 

20. What effect, if any, has the brooming of a pile upon the effect 
of the hammer in driving it ? 

A "broomed" head acts as a cushion and dissipates the blow of 
the hammer. 

21. Outline briefly the essential points to be covered in specifica- 
tions for timber piles and pile driving. 

The specifications should describe the kind of timber, such as 
oak, pine, etc. The pile shall be not less than 8 in. nor more than 
12 in. at small end, and not less than 12 in. at large end. The timber 
shall be free from shakes and defects. The piles shall be pointed 
before driving. They shall be straight, and bark removed. Only 
portions left in work will be paid for. The top shall be banded be- 
fore driving. The broomed portions shall be cut off. Iron shoes 
must be provided if necessary. The weight and fall of hammer and 
the penetration due to last blows shall be specified. 

22. Describe briefly the several methods of sinking wooden piles 
and the conditions under which each would be used? 

Wooden piles may be sunk : 

1. By the ordinary pile-driver. An iron hammer weighing one to 
four thousand pounds is raised by machinery and permitted to fall 
upon the head of the pile. Used under almost all conditions. 

2. By the steam hammer. In this case the hammer is operated 
by steam, permitting the blows to follow very rapidly. Adapted to 
all conditions, especially in quicksands and' soft soils. 

3. By the water jet. An iron pipe is fastened to the side of the 
pile and lowered with it, the lower end of the pipe being near the 
point of the pile. Water is forced into the pipe causing a softening 
and loosening of the material below the point of the pile. The pile 
is forced into the material by the weight of the hammer resting upon 
it and by blows when necessary. 

4. Piles may also be driven by utilizing the explosive force of 
gunpowder or dynamite, suitable apparatus being provided. 



23. In driving piles through quicksand, which is the most effec- 
tive method, a' succession of quick, light blows or of slow, heavy 
ones? Give your reasons. 

Quick, light blows are the most effective. The quicksand runs 
freely and tends to force the pile up. Quick, light blows will pre- 
vent this, and also prevent the sand from settling about the surface 
of the pile which increases the resistance to driving. 



28 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

24. Describe the various ways of shaping and using sheet piling 
to keep water from work in progress. 

The sheet piles may be — 

1. Tongued and grooved. 

2. Overlapping. 

3. Grooved only, with tongues driven in the grooves. 

The ends of piles should be sharpened to facilitate driving. 

Two rows of guide piles are first driven about 10 ft. apart. A 
pair of waling pieces are then fastened to the guide piles near their 
top leaving a space between waling pieces equal to thickness of the 
sheet piles. The sheet piles should be driven between the wales, 
starting at each guide pile working towards the center, the center 
pile forming a wedge to tighten the row. The point of the pile being 
driven should bear against the adjacent pile. 

25. (a) When is sheet piling left in? (h) When is it tongued 
and grooved? 

(a) When careful drawing of same is apt to disturb retained 
material and thus endanger the foundations of adjacent structures. 
Also when the cost of drawing same is greater than the value of 
the timber. 

(h) Sheeting is tongued and grooved when driven in water-bear- 
ing material to keep out water or freely-flowing sand, mud, etc. It 
is tongued and grooved for coffer-dams, caissons, etc., to make water- 
tight compartments. 

26. Name the common kinds of wood used in building and state 
the purpose for which each is used. 

Ash — Used for interior and cabinet work. 
Cedar — Used for posts, ties and fences. 
Cypress — Used for interior work. 
Elm — Used for ties and bridge timber. 
Hemlock — Used for rough lumber for construction. 
Locust — Used for fence posts and ties. 
Maple — Used for interior work. 

Oak — Used for ties, posts and where strength is required. 
Palmetto — Used for under- water construction. 
Pine, red yellow, white — Used for all construction purposes. 
Spruce — Used for piles and construction purposes. 
Walnut — Used for interior work. 

Note. — Por complete table of properties of woods see Byrne's 
"Inspector's Pocketbook," p. 56. 

27. Under what conditions can wood be used in permanent con- 
struction ? 



INSPECTOR- — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 29 

It can be used for work under water. It must not be exposed to 
the air at any time. It must also be protected from the teredo or 
other destructive insects present in water. 

28. What kind of timber resists decay longest under ground? 
Tinder water? 

Under ground — Cedar, locust, chestnut, oak. 
Under water — Florida palmetto. 

29. What is the best method of preserving piles in sea-water? 
In the ground ? 

In sea-water piles are best preserved by the creosoting process. 

In the ground impregnation with creosote or with chloride of 
zinc are considered the best methods. 

When piles are exposed to tide-water they should be driven with 
the bark on, spruce or hemlock being commonly used. Where the 
teredo is active, Florida palmetto gives good results. 

In firm soils, pines, oaks, elms or firs are used, the bark being re- 
moved. 

30. How may timber be preserved from decay? 

There are several methods in use for the preservation of timber : 

1. Burnettizing or impregnation of the timber with chloride of 
zinc. 

2. Impregnation with copper or zinc sulphate. 

3. Kyanizing — Impregnation with bichloride of mercury. 

4. Creosoting — Impregnation with creosote or dead oil of coal tar. 
In all these cases the timber is heated, the sap vaporized, the air 

exhausted from the pores by means of a pump and the preservative 
forced into the pores under pressure. 

5. Vulcanizing — In this case the wood is heated while under air 
pressure. The operation renders the sap insoluble and the timber 
durable. 

31. How would you prevent dry rot in floor beams? 

Use seasoned dry wood for the beams. Have the open spaces 
ventilated; treat the wood with coal tar or some other approved 
process. 

32. What is hydraulic cement, and how many kinds do you know 
of? What is the essential difference in their manufacture? 

Cement which possesses the property of setting under water is 
called hydraulic cement. 



30 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

There are three varieties of hydraulic cement: Portland cement, 
Rosendale or natural cement, and Puzzolana. 

Portland is made of an artificial mixture of the ingredients, 
ground, roasted and powdered. 

Rosendale is prepared by roasting and powdering the natural ce- 
ment stone. 

Puzzolana does not require any roasting, but is prepared by 
simply powdering the natural rock. 

33. What are the physical differences between American Portland 
and Rosendale cements? How are they manufactured? 

Physical Differences. 

Portland Cement. Rosendale Oement. 

Texture— Close, floury .... Porous and globular. 

Color- — Bluish and greenish gray Brownish. 

Slower setting than Rosendale Sets quickly in air. 

Hardens slowly in water. 

Spec. Gr., 3.0=h Spec. Gr., 2.7±. 

Weight, 86=b lb. per cu. ft Weight, 50± lb. per cu. ft. 

Stronger than Rosendale Not as strong as Portland. 

In the manufacture of Portland cement, lime rock and cement 
rock are quarried separately, ground, mixed and then roasted. The 
clinker is then crushed and pulverized, and bagged for the market. 

Rosendale cements are manufactured in a similar manner, only 
that the raw material is natural stone, containing proper proportions 
of the ingredients. 

34. What is the meaning of the term "setting" as applied to 
cement ? 

Setting refers to the process of chemical combination which 
takes place among the particles of cement when subjected to the 
action of water, resulting in its hardening. " 

35. Does the quality of cement, particularly Portland cement for 
hydraulic work, depend in any way upon its storage ? (<z) If so, 
state how it is affected by storage ? (h) State what may be the after- 
effect upon a structure of lack of care in this respect, (c) Describe 
the proper storage of cement. 

Yes. 

a. Fresh cement has a certain amount of free lime which is re- 
moved by exposure to the air; fresh cement not having time to cool 
^'swells" or "blows." 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 31 

6. Lack of care in this respect causes swelling of the lime, which 
may be followed by breaking np of the masonry, thus endangering 
the structure. 

c. Cement should be stored in a dry enclosure, upon a platform 
raised a few inches above ground. It should be protected from rain 
or moisture by suitable covering. 

36. Describe, as far as you know them, the tests for cements 
where great strength is required? 

The tests for cement are : 

1. Test for fineness of grinding. 

2. Test for specific gravity. 

3. Test for time of setting. 

4. Test for soundness. 

5. Test for strength. 

1. The test for fineness is made by passing the cement through 
sieves of various meshes and noting the percentages retained in 
each. Not more than 2% should be retained on a No. 100 sieve, 
and 10% on a No. 50. 

2. Specific gravity of cement is determined by using a special 
specific gravity balance. The specific gravity should be about 3.1. 

3. Time of setting — activity. 

Pats of cement are made with about 25% water, 2 or 3 in. in di- 
ameter, and I in. thick. They are immersed in water at 65° F., and 
the time required to set hard enough to bear T^-in. wire having a J-lb. 
weight, and iji-in. wire having a 1-lb. weight, is noted, giving 
"initial set" and "final set." For a good cement the time for the 
initial set should be less than 45 minutes and the final set within 10 
hours. 

4. Soundness is determined by immersing the pats made with 
thin edges in water and noting blowing or cracks at edges, which 
indicate free lime or magnesia. If lime is present, storage will im- 
prove the cement. Magnesia is injurious. This test may be accel- 
erated by immersing the pats in a steam bath. 

5. Strength: Briquettes having a cross-section of 1 sq. in. are 
made of neat cement and also of various mixtures of cement and 
sand. They are allowed to set one day in air and then are immersed 
in water. After periods of 24 hours, 7 days, 28 days, etc., they are 
broken by testing-machines and the breaking weights noted. 

A good Portland cement should develop a strength of 175 lb. 
per sq. in. at the end of 24 hours ; at the end of 7 days, 450 lb. per 
sq. in. ; at the end of 28 days, 550 lb. per sq. in. 

37. Does a quick-setting or a slow-setting cement give the 
greatest ultimate strength? 



32 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

The slow-setting cement usually gives the greatest ultimate 
strength. 



38. What effect has fine grinding on cement? 

Fine grinding causes an increase in weight of the cement, as well 
as in its ultimate strength, and enables the proportion of sand used 
in the mortar to be increased. 



39. Should cement mortar be used after lying over-night? 
It should not be used. 

40. What is grout? If cement gets hot during mixing, what is 
the cause? 

Grout is a mortar of sand and cement, with sufficient water to 
make the mixture run freely. It is usually poured into crevices or 
joints in masonry to make solid work at places inaccessible to 
masons. If cement becomes hot in mixing, it contains free lime,, 
which is in the process of slaking and is injurious to the work. 

> 

41. What defects should an inspector look for in opening a barrel 
of cement? 

He should observe especially that the cement has not become 
damp and partly set. 

42. Describe a quick, rough test for cement that can be made on 
the work without a machine. 

Make a small pat of neat cement and note the interval of time 
until it resists slight pressure of thumb nail. Also note, after the 
cement is set, if the edges of the pat show cracks. 

A ball 1 in. in diameter of neat cement is often made (by mixing 
with a little water) and allowed to set. It should not crack or 
crumble, but grow steadily harder. 

43. What is mortar composed of, and how is it mixed? 

Mortar is composed of lime or cement mixed with sand and a 
sufficient quantity of water to make the mass plastic. The propor- 
tions of the ingredients depend upon their character and the pur- 
poses for which the mortar is to be used. 

The sand and cement are spread dry in alternate layers in a 
mixing box or on a platform and turned repeatedly with shovels 
until the mixture appears entirely uniform; it is then spread out 
basin-like, having a depression in the center into which the water 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 33 

is poured. By means of a hoe the dry mixture is then drawn into 
the water and worked until the ingredients are thoroughly incor- 
porated and the mass is uniform in character and of proper con- 
sistency. 

44. What kind of sand should be used in mortar, and how do 
you test its quality? 

Sand for mortar should be fine-grained, clean, sharp and free 
from loam, clay and other impurities. 
Sand is tested for — 

1. Fineness — Determined by passing through sieves of known 
meshes and noting the percentages retained. 

2. Cleanness — Tested by rubbing a sample between the fingers 
and noting if dust adheres to them. 

3. Sharpness — Tested by examination with the aid of a lens. 

4. Freedom from impurities. 

Presence of salts is determined by adding nitric acid and nitrate 
of silver to a sample of the sand previously allowed to settle in 
distilled water. A white precipitate indicates the salt. 

Clay is determined by permitting a sample to settle in water. 
The clay, if present, will separate in a distinct layer. 

45. What shall be used for mortar in walls? 

All walls below the curb level shall be laid in cement mortar. 
Those above, in the same, or in cement and lime mortar mixed. 

' 46. Name the common kinds of stone used in building. 

The more common building stones are granites, gneisses, traps, 
sandstones, slates, limestones and marbles. 

47. Describe briefly rubble m^asonry, ashlar masonry, and state 
the classes of structures for which these, and also brick masonry and 
concrete, are each adapted. 

Rubble masonry is composed of rough, undressed stone ; it may 
be coursed, uncoursed or cobweb; used for cheap retaining walls, 
foundations of buildings, piers and abutments of highway bridges, 
and the backing of walls, dams, etc. 

Ashlar masonry is composed of cut stone, either coursed or ran- 
dom, laid in close joints. It is used for first-class retaining walls, 
piers of railroad and highway bridges, and facework of dams, abut- 
ments, anchorages, arches, etc. 

Brick masonry is used largely for walls and piers of buildings, 
for column footings, for sewers, arches of small span, etc. 



34 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

Concrete masonry is adapted for all classes of structures; espe- 
cially adapted for under-water structures, such as pier foundations, 
etc. 



48. Define the terms "quarry-faced," "rough-pointed," "fine- 
axed," "bush-hammered" as applied to the dressing of stone. 

Quarry-faced refers to a class of masonry in which the surfaces 
of the stones are not dressed, but left as they come from the quarry. 

Rough-pointed refers to surfaces of stones which have been 
dressed so that projections do not exceed ^ to 1 in. 

Fine-axed refers to surfaces of stones which have been rough- 
pointed and then finished with a "fine axe" having a specified num- 
ber of blades to the inch. 

Bush-hammered refers to surfaces which have been rough- 
pointed, fine-pointed and then finished with a bush hammer. 

49. What are "headers" and "stretchers," "quoins," "dowels," as 
referred to masonry? 

"Headers" are stones or bricks used for tying the face of a wall 
to the backing. They are set so that the greatest dimensions lie 
perpendicular to the face of the wall. 

"Stretchers" refer to stones or brick which have their greatest 
dimensions parallel to the face of the wall. 

"Quoins" are stones at the corners of buildings or walls. 

"Dowels" are straight pieces of iron entering holes on the upper 
face of one stone and the lower face of the stone above it, tying 
them together. 



50. What is meant by breaking joints ? 

In laying masonry the joints are so arranged that they strike 
near the middle of stones in the course above and below. This is 
called breaking joints. 



61. What is meant by row-locking? 

If an arch is built in concentric rings with no bond but the mor- 
tar between these rings, the work is called "row-locking." 



52. What is meant by racking? 

In rack work the unfinished end is left in the form of steps, so 
that the new work can be thoroughly bonded with the old. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 35 

53. What is meant by toothing masonry? 

"WTien the unfinished end of a wall is so left that to continue the 
work bricks must be inserted between other bricks it is called tooth- 
ing. It is bad practice because the mortar cannot be thoroughly 
worked in. 

54. Outline specifications for first-class ashlar granite masonry. 

The cement should be the best quality Portland, and should meet 
all usual requirements when tested. 

The sand must be clean, sharp, free from loam. 

The stone must be first-class granite, uniform in color, free from 
seams and other defects. 

All stones must be cut to exact dimensions, the length not ex- 
ceeding four times and the width not exceeding twice the depth. 

All angles and arrises must be true, well defined and sharp. 

Joints should be not more than f in., dressed to full depth of 
stone and properly broken in adjacent courses. 

Courses should be well bonded, there being at least one header 
to every three stretchers. 

Face joints should be raked out for two inches before mortar has 
hardened and thoroughly pointed with 1 : 1 Portland cement mortar. 

Plug holes should be at least 3 in. from arrises. 

The surfaces shall be rock-faced with IJ-in. chisel draft at the 
arrises cut on true lines. 

The rock face should be bold 3 to 6 in. beyond the arrises. 

The stones should be laid on their natural bed and all joints per- 
fectly full of mortar. Spalls may be used only to bring the stones 
level, but as few as possible are to go in the work. 

When work is done in cold weather special apparatus to heat the 
sand and stone must be provided. 

In hot weather the masonry should be protected and kept wet. 

In joining old work to new, special pains must be taken to se- 
cure a good bond. 

55. State the important details of construction of a heavy ma- 
sonry dam. 

The important details are: 

1. Temporary structures to divert the flow of the river should 
first be built so that the work of constructing the dam may be car- 
ried on in the dry. These structures should be of rigid and fairly 
permanent character and of sufficient capacity so that the work on 
the dam proper will not be endangered. 

2. The excavation is then proceeded with, the material being dis- 
posed of to the best advantage. In making the excavation the slopes 



36 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

should be protected from slides and the bottom kept well drained. 
The foundation should be carried down to solid rock, the soft and 
decomposed rock being removed. 

3. All fissures, holes or seams in the bottom must be thoroughly- 
closed by grouting, and springs should be led away below the dam or 
securely plugged. 

4. Before starting the masonry the rock surface should be flushed 
and painted with neat cement mortar, and a rich concrete or mortar 
used to fill up the irregularities. 

5. Every precaution should be used in laying the masonry to se- 
cure tight work. 

6. Where the dam abuts into the hillsides special care should be 
taken to make the joints tight. 

7. Where pipes or other structures are built through the dam, 
cut-off walls should be constructed and the work done in the tightest 
manner possible to prevent leakage. 

56. In laying up the masonry in a dam, what measures as to 
shape of stone, cutting same, bonding same, and laying same will 
tend to make the tightest work? 

1. As to shape, the body of the dam should be composed of large 
blocks of rubble, as few spalls as possible being used; the faces of 
the dam above the river bed should be constructed of large blocks 
of cut stone, laid in 1 : 2 mortar. 

2. As to cutting, the rubble blocks should be trimmed roughly to 
remove irregular projections and feather edges. The face stones 
should be dressed to a true, even surface at the joints to a depth of a 
foot or more, the back being roughly squared. Special stones, such 
as required at inlets and chambers, etc., should be cut to exact 
dimensions. 

3. As to bonding, the rubble composing the body of the wall 
should be thoroughly interlocked and unfinished work should be 
"racked back ;" face stones should be bonded into the rubble backing 
by the use of frequent headers. 

4. The stones should be laid on natural bed in first-class Port- 
land cement mortar, all joints being entirely filled with mortar. The 
face joints should be inclined inward, so as to make bed joints if 
possible normal to face of dam. All face joints should be raked to 
a depth of about 2 in. and thoroughly pointed with a rich Portland 
cement mOrtar. 

57. Describe minutely everything to be done in setting a large 
rubble block in the heart of such a dam, from the time the stone is 
lifted until the setting is complete. What objections, if any, are 
there to the use of grout in such a case ? State fully and clearly. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 37 

a. After the stone is lifted give it a thorough drenching; mean- 
v.hile the mason should prepare the mortar bed for same; the stone 
is then raised and set on its natural bed in the place thus prepared. 
It is now raised again, the mortar bed inspected and sufficient mor- 
tar added to fill the joints. It is then finally set. Spalls should be 
placed only where necessary to give an even bed for the large block, 
as few as possible being used. No joints should be filled with mortar 
after the blocks are in place. 

h. Grout is porous, has not sufficient binding qualities, and will 
not prevent the passage of water. 

58. In the construction of a dam in stone masonry to resist the 
passage of water through it, state minutely every precaution to be 
taken to make the dam itself watertight? 

1. The sand, cement and stone should all be of the best quality, 
and the mixing and using of the mortar carefully supervised. 

2. The upper and lower faces of the dam should be built of ashlar 
laid in close joints. 

3. The dam should be built on a well-prepared rock foundation, 
the rock being painted with neat cement before the masonry Is laid. 

4. The inside or backing may be of rubble or concrete. 

5. The joints in the rubble must be thoroughly filled with mor- 
tar, large stones should be used, and as few spalls as possible; care 
must be taken that no open spaces are left under the stone. 

6. The bonding should be thorough, horizontally and vertically, 
and all unfinished portions should be racked, so that on joining new 
work a good bond will be secured. 

7. The face joints must be thoroughly pointed with 1 : 2 mortar, 

8. In joining old and new work the old surface must be well 
cleaned and painted with cement grout before laying masonry. 

9. No work should be done in freezing weather. The stones must 
be well wet before using. No mortar partly set must be used. In 
cold weather the sand and stones should be heated. In warm weather 
the masonry should be kept wet, as the loss of too much water inter- 
feres with setting and injures the masonry. 

10. Where the dam abuts into the sides of the valley, proper 
embankments must be built to prevent the passage of water around 
them. 

11. Should the foundation be seamy or springs be encountered, 
they must be securely plugged by grouting or otherwise. 

12. Pipes or conduits passing through the dam should be pro- 
tected by special cut-off walls and neat cement to avoid forming 
lines of seepage. 

59. Describe what you would consider a perfect material for 
use in puddling. State also what you would do in case you would 
have a job of puddling to do and such material was not available? 



38 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

The best puddle is made of coarse gravel 1 part, fine gravel 3.5, 
clay 2.0 and sand 0.15. The clay should be opaque and uncrystal- 
lized and form a plastic mass with water. 

If this material is not obtainable gravelly loam may be used, the 
finest material being placed near the outside of the wall; or a mix- 
ture of equal parts of coarse gravel, sand and clay may be used. 



60. Describe the best method of using puddle in order to obtain 
an impervious bank. 

The gravel should be spread loosely in thin layers, and the clay 
spread upon it, the lumps being broken; the sand is then depos- 
ited on the clay. The material is thoroughly mixed by passing a 
harrow over it; it is well moistened and then rolled with a heavy, 
grooved roller to a compact mass. The finished puddle should not 
be exposed to the drying action of the air, but covered with a layer 
of dry clay and sand. 

61. How many headers are required in stone walls ? 

Walls less than 24 in. in thickness should have at least one 
header for every 3 ft. in height and 4 ft. in length, extending 
through the wall. If the wall is over 24 in. in thickness, there should 
be one header for every six superficial feet of wall on each side and 
extending at least 2 ft. into the wall. Headers should be at least 18 
in. wide and 8 in. thick. 

62. In setting a heavy capstone on a brick bearing pier, what 
steps would you take to make sure that it was solidly bedded ? 

The stone should be well brushed and broomed, and wetted so 
as to insure its sticking to the mortar, and the pier wetted on top; 
sufficient mortar should then be spread, adding a little water if nec- 
essary, to make the stone come to an even bearing, distributing the 
weight over the entire area of the pier. "The stone must be per- 
fectly level to insure good work. 

63. Referring to the above, would it be a good idea to use wedges 
in making the stone level? 

Not at all; they cause unequal bearing, throwing the weights on 
small areas, which often causes the stone to crack. 



64. In a wall 10 ft. thick, how long should the stretchers be? 
The stretchers in a 10-ft. wall should be 4 ft. in length. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. oU 

65. How thick must ashlar facing be? 

All ashlar facing must be at least 4 in. thick and properly 
bonded in with the backing. 

66. Must a dry wall be laid differently from one built in cement? 

In building a dry wall, the bed must be kept even and the wall 
be made one-half again as thick as would be necessary for one laid in 
mortar. Special attention must be paid to secure good bonding. 

67. What is concrete, of what composed, in what proportions 
and how should its ingredients be mixed? 

Concrete is artificial stone made by mixing sand, cement and 
broken stone or gravel with sufficient water to make the mass 
VvOrkable. 

The proportions of the ingredients to be used depend upon the 
character of the work and the nature of the ingredients themselves. 
The usual proportions are — 

1 cement, 2 sand, 3 stone. 
1 cement, 2 sand, 5 stone. 
1 cement, 3 sand, 5 stone. 
1 cement, 3 sand, 6 stone. 
In mixing concrete by hand the cement and sand, previously 
measured in boxes provided for the purpose, are spread out on the 
platform and thrown until the mass appears uniform. Water is 
then added, the mixing continued, the mortar spread out, and upon 
it is spread the measured quantity of stone. The entire mass is 
then thrown with shovels until the sand, cement and stone are 
thoroughly mixed, enough water being used to make the concrete 
plastic. 

68. State briefly the important points regarding mixing (by ma- 
chine) and placing heavy concrete masonry. 

In mixing concrete by machinery the important points to be 
observed are — 

1. That the specified proportions of the ingredients are fed into 
the mixer at all times. 

2. That the quantity of water is uniform and of proper amount 
to produce the desired consistency. 

3. That the ingredients are thoroughly mixed. 

4. That when the mixer is emptied, its entire contents are re- 
moved. 

5. When the mixer is stopped it should be flushed with water 
and no concrete partially set or otherwise should be permitted to 
remain in it. 



40 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

6. The mixer should be located as near the work as possible. 

7. The concrete should have a low fall after leaving the mixer, so 
that the materials do not separate. 

8. If transported the concrete must be carried in water-tight 
cars or barrows. 

9. As soon as placed the concrete should be well compacted, all 
corners being thoroughly filled. 

10. The forms must be firm, unyielding, have the closest possible 
joints and smoothed on the inside. 

11. A richer concrete should be deposited near all exposed sur- 
faces. 

12. The work should be supervised by a competent inspector. 

69. When it is necessary to lay concrete under water, how can 
it be done with good results? 

Concrete may be deposited under water — 

1. In paper or burlap bags carefully lowered and placed into 
position with the aid of divers. 

2. A V-shaped box of wood or iron is commonly used. It is 
filled with concrete and lowered by a crane. One of the sloping sides 
is swung open by pulling out a pin, which is attached to a string 
reaching the surface, and the concrete deposited in place. 

3. A long hopper-shaped tube called a "tremie" is also used. 
It is open at both ends and its length is adjustable. It is suspended 
in place by a crane, and a continuous flow of concrete maintained 
through it. The tube is thus kept full and separation of material 
is avoided. 

In all methods no opportunity should be given for the material 
to separate. Leveling should be done by rakes, no ramming being 
allowed. 

70. (a) How would you unite a new layer of concrete with old? 
(h) What is gained by storing Portland cement before using it? 

(a) By thoroughly washing and scrubbing the surface of the old 
concrete and painting the surface with neat cement or a rich mortar 
before the new concrete is laid. It is claimed by some that the use 
of tempered concrete at the junction of old and new work will give 
good results. 

(h) Fresh cement contains free lime, which causes expansion or 
"blowing" and might endanger the structure in which it is used in 
this condition. During the time of storing the free lime is changed 
to carbonate of lime, and in this state the cement does not swell. 

71. (a) What are the objections to tempering concrete? (h) Why 
are masses of concrete left wet for several days? (c) Why do you 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 41 

mix broken stone and gravel wet? (d) Why do you not use the 
shovel in laying concrete? (e) When is concrete cheaper than 
brick ? 

(a) Tempering concrete weakens it greatly. Tempering disturbs 
the setting, which has already begun, reducing the strength. 

(h) Evaporation, percolation, and absorption by the stones cause 
a large loss of water in the mass of concrete and thus deprives it of 
the necessary water required for proper setting. In order to avoid 
this, the mass of concrete is kept wet. 

(c) Broken stone and gravel are mixed wet, as they absorb water 
from the mortar and would therefore retard and interfere with its 
setting. 

(d) If a shovel is used in laying concrete the mortar sticks to 
the shovel and will thus be separated from the stone ;^the water will 
run off the shovel, carrying the lightest material with it. This will 
be the case especially where the fall is considerable. 

(e) Concrete is cheaper than brick when used in large masses, 
iind where expensive and elaborate forms are not required. 



72. (a) Upon what does the imperviousness of concrete to the 
passage of water depend? (h) Describe clearly and fully the method 
you would take to determine the best proportions of the several in- 
gredients in order to make water-tight concrete. 

(a) The imperviousness of concrete depends upon — 

1. Character and proportions of the cement, sand and stone, 
and the amount of water used. 

2. Upon the thoroughness of the mixing. 

3. Upon the care in laying. 

(h) Provide a measure of known capacity, fill it with the sand 
to be used and then add water to the point of overflowing; note the 
quantity, and thus determine the percentage of voids in the sand. In 
the same way determine the percentage of voids in the stone. Now, 
by starting with a barrel of cement as a unit, the quantity of sand 
which can be used for the mortar is determined from the known 
percentage of voids; thus, if the sand has 40% voids, 2i barrels of 
sand may be used, giving 2^ barrels of mortar. The amount of 
stone can then be determined in the same way; thus if the voids 
in the stone are 50% there will be required 5 barrels of stone for 
each 2-1 barrels of mortar, the whole making 5 barrels of concrete. 
The proportion will then be 1 volume of cement, 2^ volumes of sand 
and 5 volumes of stone, and for other percentages of voids it will 
vary accordingly. Practically a little more cement than necessary 
to fill the voids should be added in mixing the mortar. Enough 
water should be used to make the mass plastic. 



42 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

73. What is rubble concrete and when is it used ? 

Rubble concrete is a mass of concrete in which are embedded 
blocks of rubble. It is used in the body of large retaining walls, 
dams and foundations to save concrete and therefore decrease the 
cost of the structure. Care should be taken that each block should 
be thoroughly embedded in the concrete and that the blocks are not 
placed too near the exposed surfaces. 



74. Describe the best method of setting concrete blocks for a 
bulkhead under water, including location as to line and level. 

The necessary preparation and leveling of the site is done by 
divers with the aid of heavy iron straight-edges. The blocks are 
brought to the site and lifted by a crane. When swinging into posi- 
tion they are suspended about half their depth in the water to re- 
duce the load on the lifting tackle. When near the right location 
they are lowered, and when about 3 or 4 inches above the lower course 
they are carefully adjusted. Accurate adjustment for line may be 
secured by timber guide-pieces wedged into the dowel grooves in the 
blocks, and by stop-timbers attached to the blocks already set. Divers 
assist in the work when necessary. After the blocks are set the 
dowel grooves are packed full of concrete. 



75. Describe a good quality of bricks and state how you would 
know a good brick from a poor one? 

Good bricks are usually of dark, reddish-brown color, emit a 
clear, ringing sound when struck, absorb a small percentage of water, 
do not crumble easily and do not scale or swell in water. 

Poor bricks are reddish-yellow in appearance, emit a dull sound 
when struck, absorb 15 to 25% of water, crumble easily and may 
scale or swell when left in water. 



76. In how many ways is brickwork bonded to make good work 
in heavy walls ? 

The usual bonds are: 

1. Cross Bond — A course composed of headers and stretchers in- 
tervening. The joints in the second stretcher course come in the 
middle of the first. 

2. English Bond — Alternate courses of headers and stretchers. 

3. Flemish Bond — Headers and stretchers alternating in the 
same course. 

4. Ordinary Bond — One header course following three or five 
successive stretcher courses. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 43 

77. What should be the proportion of "headers" to "stretchers"? 

The proportion depends upon the character of the work. In 
brickwork every sixth course should be a header. 

In stone walls there should be one header to 3 stretchers or 1 
header for each 12 sq. ft. of wall surface. 

78. How should 8-in., 12-in. and 16-in. walls be bonded? 

In an 8-in. wall, the headers reach through. In a 12-in. wall, 
they reach from each face through two-thirds of the wall. In a 
16-in. wall the two middle courses must be bonded separately. At 
least one-sixth of the face of the wall should be headers. 

79. What sh,ould be done to brick before using? 
They should be well wetted. • , 

80. Why should bricks be wet before laying them? 

Bricks when dry absorb the water from the mortar which is 
necessary for proper setting. 

81. Give precautions in laying bricks where great strength is 
required. 

The bricks should be thoroughly wetted just before laying. Every 
brick must be completely imbedded in mortar under its bottom, on 
its sides and on its ends at one operation. Every joint must be full 
of mortar. The joints must be close, not exceeding I in., and well 
pointed. Unfinished work must be racked. Before new work is 
added, the old work must be cleaned thoroughly and well moistened. 
The work should be well bonded. 

82. May hollow bricks be used in walls? 

The inside 4 in. of alh 12-in. walls may be built of hard-burned, 
hollow clay or terra cotta brick of the same dimensions as the rest 
of the brick. Thicker walls may have a larger percentage of these 
bricks. 

83. How thick should the brick backing be to ashlar facing? 

The backing should be of the same thickness as would be re- 
quired for a wall without the facing. 

84. What do you understand by the word skewback when used in 
masonry ? 

A skewback is a brick or stone cut on a bevel to receive the arch 
ring. 



44 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

85. What is a foundation wall? 

A foundation wall is a wall below the curb level. 

86. Of what material and how are foundation walls to be con- 
structed ? 

They should be built of stone or brick. They should, if built 
of stone, be at least 8 in. thicker than the wall next above them for 
a depth of 12 ft. below the curb level; and for each additional 10 
ft. in depth they should increase 4 in. in thickness. If built of 
brick, they should be 4 in. thicker than the wall above and increase 
4 in. for each additional 10 ft. over 12 ft. in depth. 

87. Of what material must the walls of all buildings other than 
frame buildings be constructed? 

They must be constructed of stone, brick, iron or other hard, 
non-combustible material. 

88. What are bearing walls ? 

The walls which take the floor loading are called the bearing 
walls. 

89. What should be the thickness of non-bearing walls? 

They should have a minimum thickness of 12 in., and, other 
things being equal, they may be 4 in. less in thickness than bearing 
walls. 

90. What change must be made in a bearing wall that has open- 
ings? 

If the openings amount to 25% the wall must be increased 4 in. 
in thickness and an additional 4 in. for each additional 10% be- 
yond the 25 per cent. 

91. Who must preserve the party wall? 

If the adjoining party wall is to be used by the persons making 
the excavation, they must preserve it. 

92. How does the height of the building affect the thickness of 
the walls? 

The thickness of the walls must be increased as the height of 
the building is increased. 

All buildings having a depth of 105 ft. without any cross walls 
or supports must be 4 in. thicker than otherwise specified. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 45 

93. What should be the thickness of partition walls? 

Partition walls should be 8 in. thick when they carry beams of 
less than 26 ft. span. They must be thicker if carried over 50 ft. 
in height. 

94. Wliat must be done with party walls and exterior walls on 
which there will be no cornice, gutters or crown mouldings? 

Where the walls are 15 ft. high or more they must be carried up 
2 ft. above the roof and shall be coped with stone, well-burnt terra 
cotta or cast iron. 

95. What is a retaining wall and where used? 

It is a wall built to support an earth embankment. Eetaining 
walls are used to form areas, to uphold street, railroad and other 
embankments, and to protect excavations and adjoining structures. 

96. How and of what should the base course of foundation walls 
be laid? 

It should be of stone or concrete, or both, or of concrete and 
stepped-up brick work. If of concrete, it must be 12 in. thick ; if of 
stone, the stone must be at least 2 ft. by 3 ft., at least 8 in. thick,, 
and at least 12 in. wider than the bottom width of the wall above. 
All base stones must be laid crosswise, edge to edge, and well bedded. 
When stepped-up brick work is used the lower course must cover 
the concrete, being at least 1 ft. wider than the wall above, and each 
step per course should not exceed IJ in. 

97. What shall be the general dimensions for walls in private- 
dwellings ? 

The basement walls of dwelling houses less than 35 ft. high and 
20 ft. wide if of brick shall not be less than 12 in. thick, and the 
other walls shall be 8 in. thick. But no party wall shall in any case 
be less than 12 in. thick, 

98. In iron cage construction, how is the masonry of the walls 
supported ? 

The walls are supported upon steel girders or beams, which are 
built between the steel columns at each floor level ; the columns 
carry the weight of the walls down to the foundations. 

99. What precautions should be taken in building a retaining 
wall ? 



46 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

The excavation should be carried down to a good foundation 
bed, the minimum being about 2 ft. 

The bottom should be freed from all perishable matter, which 
should be replaced by firm soil or sand: and it should be watered 
and rolled. 

The heaviest courses should be laid at the bottom. 

The masonry should be well laid and securely bonded, frequent 
headers being used and spalls avoided as much as possible. 

Drainage should be provided for by means of weep holes or 
drains laid along the heel of the wall. A layer of gravel may be 
placed adjacent to the wall to drain the backing. 

The backing should be deposited as compactly as possible. 

The bed joints of the masonry in the interior of the wall should 
if feasible be somewhat inclined. 

100. How would you examine scaffolds and derricks? 

The inspector should examine the construction of the scaffolds, 
see that sufficiently strong timbers are used and that the same are 
properly anchored from story to story. Special attention should 
be paid to the flooring. Derricks should be well supported and 
anchored with at least 4 or 5 guys. Special precautions should be 
taken with regard to the condition of the different members, the 
ropes, fastenings and connections. 



101. How should a derrick be placed and anchored? 

It should be so placed that there will be no danger of it sliding 
on its base or of the base tilting. The top should be supported by 
four or five guy ropes, securely anchored and of sufficient strength. 



102. How would you store materials as to public safety and con- 
venience ? 

Materials must not be piled within 4 ft. of any fire hydrant or 
fire-alarm box. The Fire Department must be given access at all 
times and in all places to all buildings for extinguishing fires. 

All material, when stored temporarily in street, should be watered 
if so ordered. Paving stones, flagging, etc., if to be reused, shall be 
moved at once to another block or neatly piled along route, so as 
not to obstruct use of walks and street by pedestrians and vehicles. 

103. Under what conditions as to nearness of excavation, depth, 
character of soil, etc., would you consider it necessary to underpin 
buildings adjoining excavations ? 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 47 

Generally speaking, buildings whose foundation walls are above 
the bottom of excavation and within 10 ft. of same require under- 
pinning in case they cannot safely be supported by sheeting. 

104. Give essential features of the process of underpinning a 
large building and every precaution to be taken. 

The essential features are: 

1. The preparation of a firm foundation bed at or below bottom 
of excavation, to take the loads on the piers or columns. 

2. The erection of footing courses and columns on these founda- 
tion beds to support the building. 

3. Setting beams on these supports and wedging them under the 
structure. 

The precautions to be observed are: 

1. In excavating for foundations, etc., shafts and trenches 
should be dug as small as possible and far enough from building 
foundation not to endanger it. 

2. The operation of wedging should be done with great care, so 
as to prevent undue strains or unequal settlement. 

105. What precautions with regard to fire-proofing are taken in 
tenements, hotels and flats? 

In 5-story buildings iron beams with fire-proof arches between 
them are used for the first floor. The stairway from the basement 
to the first floor is enclosed in stone walls with an iron door swung 
at the opening to the basement. No closet is allowed under said 
stairway. For 6-story houses and over, the halls and stairways 
should be enclosed in brickwork. 

106. How are doors for theatres constructed? 

They must be 5 ft. or more wide, according to the seating ca- 
pacity. They must open outward, be fastened with catch bolts and 
constructed of iron unless otherwise permitted by superintendent of 
buildings. 

107. Must the stairways in tenements and flats all lead to the 
roof? 

At least 1 stairway in each house must lead to the roof and be 
enclosed in a bulkhead built of fire-proof material. 

108. How are hearths for fireplaces to be supported ? 

They should be built upon trimmer arches. These arches must 
be 16 in. wide from the face of the chimney breast. The arch shall 
be built of brick, stone or burnt clay. 



48 IXSPECTOR^QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

109. What should be the size of a drain pipe for a 5-story house 
with two families on each floor? 

House drains and house sewer must be at least 4 in. where 
water-closets empty into them. If rain water discharges into them 
they must be at least 6 in. and upwards, depending upon the area 
drained. 

110. How shall the ends of beams be supported and secured? 

All beams should have their ends resting 4 in. in the walls 
or on other beams or brackets, except header and trimmer beams. 
In no case shall beams rest on stud partitions. Each tier of beams 
should be securely anchored to the side, front, rear or party walls 
at intervals not exceeding 6 ft., with strong, wrought iron anchors 
and not less than li by |-in. stops. 

111. What are the requirements as to the bearings of iron beams 
and lintels? 

Beams should rest on iron templates, or stone of sufficient 
strength and width to properly distribute the weight imposed. The 
stones should not be less than 5 in. Lintels should rest 4 in. on 
piers or walls. 

112. Why is it desirable to anchor the ends of roof trusses to 
the walls supporting them? 

To tie the walls securely together and thus prevent them from 
spreading. 

113. If you found the ends of a wooden column untrue, what 
should be done? 

They should be cut true and iron plates set under to bring them 
up to the proper height. 

114. What span is allowable in stores and warehouses? 

No span between partition walls or columns shall be more than 
25 ft. 

115. How should the bearings of iron beams be arranged on 
brick walls? 

They should be placed on stone slabs about 1 ft. square. 

116. When vaults are built under sidewalks, what extra masonry 
must be provided? 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 49 

A retaining wall must be built to hold up the street and the 
party walls must be carried forward under the sidewalk to the re- 
taining wall. The vault roofs should be built of non-combustible 
material and any holes for the admission of coal should be covered 
with rough iron covers, set flush with the pavement. 

117. Where is a trimmer beam used? 
At the head of stairs. 

118. Is it proper to set a column on the joint between the end 
of two wooden girders ? If not, why not ? 

No. The load may not be carried down vertically. There is 
generally a weak spot at the joint. In case of settlement the beams 
are likely to draw apart, and throw the column out of plumb. 

119. In using drift bolts for fastening timber, what precautions 
are necessary to obtain the greatest possible holding power in the 
timber ? 

The bolts should have a larger cross-section area by about 25% 
than the holes into which they are driven, their ends slightly 
pointed with a hammer, and they should be of sufficient length to 
make a firm connection. Round bolts are preferable to square, as 
they do not tear the wood. 

120. Is it allowable to carry roofing over a party wall? 

The party walls must extend above the roof and be properly 
coped in all cases. 

121. What size lintels shall be used for door and window open- 
ings. 

For openings up to 4 ft. in width the lintel must be 8 in. high; 
up to 6 ft. in width, 10 in. high; up to 8 ft. in width, 12 in. high, 
and the full thickness of the wall. No lintel shall be less than 4 
in. thick or have a bearing surface of less than 4 in. at each 
end. 

122. May wooden beams of adjoining properties which rest on 
the same wall be placed with their ends abutting? 

No; they must have at least 4 in. of solid brickwork between 
them. 

123. What is the least thickness a wooden beam may have? 
Three inches. 



S^ INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

124. What is a tie anchor? 

It is a rod used to hold two or more other parts firmly together 
•and is always in tension. 

125. What method would you use to bring the beams of a tier 
to a level ? 

The beams should be cut off on the underside if too high and. 
blocked up with slate. 

This should not be done when the difference in the depth or 
height is too much, in which case the walls should be relaid to meet 
requirements. 

126. Why are tie rods used where arches are built between 
beams ? 

To keep the beams from spreading. 

127. State the conditions under which a cellar may be used as 
11 dwelling? 

The cellar must be 8 ft. high throughout; the ceiling must be 
2 ft. above the curb level; the space beneath the floor must be ce- 
mented ; the area must extend along the full front and must be 2 ft. 
6 in. wide, being 6 in. below the floor level of the part occupied, 
-and properly graded and drained. The steps must have open risers. 

128. What is to be observed in building flues? 

That they are lined with cast iron, clay or terra cotta pipes and 
that they are enclosed with at least 4 in. of brickwork on all sides. 

129. How near to a hot air flue may a wooden beam be placed? 

No wooden beams shall be placed nearer than 8 in. to a flue, and 
in this case the beams should be protected with metal. 

130. Wliat are the recesses allowable for pipes? 

The recesses for pipes should not exceed one-third of the thick- 
ness of the wall and they must be sealed with masonry at the top 
and bottom of each story for one foot in height. 

131. How must hot air registers be placed in floors? 

They must be set in stone laid in plaster of paris or gauged 
mortar. There must be at least 2 in. clear space between the flue 
and the floor. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 51 

132. What buildings must be fire-proof? 
All buildings over 75 ft. in height. 

133. What air space must each room have? 

At least 600 cu. ft. Each room must have a window opening 
into the outer air, at least 12 sq. ft. in size, measured between stop 
boards. In addition there must be a transom over the door except 
where the latter opens into a public hall. 



52 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

INSPECTOR OF STEEL. 

134. \ATaat are the several qualities of cast and wrought iron and 
wrought steel which make them useful for various classes of con- 
struction ? Describe briefly the work for which each is well adapted 
and in general the methods by which you would test them. 

Cast iron is durable, possesses great strength in compression, 
and can be readily cast in any desirable shape, making it a conveni- 
ent material to use for water pipes, columns, column footings, bed 
plates for machinery, etc. 

It, however, is brittle and should not be used where subject to 
heavy vibration, irdpact or tensile stresses. 

In inspecting castings, look for honeycomb. Blow holes or sand 
holes when filled with sand or loam are detected by a dullness in 
sound on tapping. Examine also for shrinkage cracks, large ridges 
at partings and flaws on edges; warped castings and those of incor- 
rect dimensions should be rejected. 

For testing the strength, bars 14 or 26 in. long, 3 in. wide and 
1 in. thick are prepared and the breaking load transversely and in 
tension obtained, the resulting deflection and elongation being also 
noted. 

Two principal varieties of cast iron are made: White, which is 
hard, brittle and difficult to work; gray, which is soft, tough and 
easily worked. 

They differ in the amount of carbon in chemical combination. 

Wrought iron is adapted to structures which are subject to alter- 
nating compressive and tensile stresses, but in which the unit 
stresses are not excessive, such as rivets, beams, girders, truss mem- 
bers, columns, etc. The metal is durable, malleable, elastic and 
readily worked. 

In inspecting wrought iron look for "cold short" (containing 
phosphorus), indicated by bright crystalline fracture and discolored 
spots; also for red short (containing sulphur, arsenic, etc.), indi- 
cated, by cracks on edges of bars. 

Tough iron has a fine, fibrous and close texture. 

Wrought iron is tested by bending prepared bars hot and cold. 
No fracture should result. 

The tensile strength is determined from test pieces usually about 
18 in. long by 1 in. wide, and of the original thickness. 

135. (a) Describe the difference in appearance of fractures of 
good steel and of good cast iron, (h) Also how both differ from 
that of good wrought iron? 

(a) When broken slowly the fracture of steel presents a silky, 
fibrous appearance with an angular and irregular outline. When 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 63 

ruptured suddenly the fracture has a granular appearance with 
the surface usually even and at right angles to the length. The 
fracture is often cup-shaped. The color is light pearl-gray. 

The fracture of cast iron should be of a light bluish-gray color 
and of close-grained texture with considerable metallic luster. 

(h) Good wrought iron is indicated by small crystals of a uni- 
form size and color, and fine, close, silky fibers. 

. 136. Describe the appearance of each of the above when the ma- 
terial is poor. 

Fracture of poor steel is dull and sandy looking without luster 
or sheen ; yellowish color ; burned steel has a whitish hue and granu- 
lar fracture. 

Fracture of poor cast iron shows mottled surface, either with 
patches of darker or lighter iron, or it may have crystalline patches ; 
very bad specimens also show air holes. 

Fracture of poor wrought iron shows coarse crystals, blotches of 
color, loose, open and blackish fibers. Flaws in the fractured sur- 
face indicate defects in the processes of manufacture. 

137. State what a drift pin is for, and whether it has any effect 
upon the strength of the material in which it is used, and what 
that effect is. 

A drift pin is a round piece of steel, made slightly tapering, used 
for bringing pieces together preparatory to riveting. 

The use of a drift pin to enlarge a hole causes a hardening of 
the material around same, and a consequent loss of ductility and 
an increase in the elastic limit of the latter. This is considered 
very injurious. Specifications prohibit the use of drift pins except 
for bringing pieces together. 

138. (a) Describe the proper way of testing the thickness of a 
C. I. column. 

(h) Describe carefully the method of testing the soundness of a 
C I. column. 

(c) What parts of a C. I. column require special care in exami- 
nation to prevent accident? 

(a) The thickness of a C. I. column is usually tested by drilling 
a i-in. hole at one or more points and measuring same. A round 
column may be laid on a pair of rails set' horizontally. The column 
is pushed slightly and note is made whether it rolls uniformly or 
always settles on one side. In the latter case the metal is thicker 
on that side, and a test-hole should be drilled on the opposite side. 

(h) The soundness of a C. I. column is tested by tapping the 



54 mSPECTOR^QUESTIOXS AND ANSWERS. 

column all around with a hammer and noting the sound. Blow 
holes or sand holes filled in with sand from the mould give a dull 
sound upon tapping. Cracks are also indicated by a dull sound. 
The middle of the column must be examined carefully for cold 
short. 

(c) The connections of lugs, brackets, capitals and bases require 
close examination to discover flaws, shrinkage and blow-holes. 

139. (a) Suppose a cast iron column to be i in. too short, what 
would you do ? 

(h) Suppose such a column to have one of the ends not turned 
square, what would you do? 

(a) If the column is J in. too short, put a i-in. steel plate under 
it to bring it to the proper elevation. 

(h) If one of the ends is not turned square the column should 
be sent to the nearest shop and corrected, provided that too much 
metal is not removed. Sometimes it may be allowable to leave the 
column as it is and put a wedge-shaped shim plate between the 
incorrect end and the next column. In a very bad case the column 
must be rejected. 

140. Where, in a detail drawing, a number of small circles are 
shown in some parts, all filled in with hatching, or entirely black, 
what does it indicate? 

Such circles represent holes for field rivets or field bolts. 

141. Would you consider it necessary to make any inspection of 
girders, posts or other iron work after delivery on the ground be- 
fore erection? If so, state exactly and fully what that inspection 
should be. 

The iron work received on the ground must be examined to see 
if it tallies with the invoice sheets, and every piece must be closely 
scrutinized to see if the shop inspector's stamp has been placed 
thereon. The inspector of erection must also examine all material 
received to see that it has not been bent or otherwise injured during 
transportation from the shops. Anything overlooked by the shop 
inspector must be corrected by the inspector of erection. 

142. Suppose that during erection certain rivet holes do not 
come "fair," how should such errors of every kind be corrected? 

Holes which do not match exactly during erection must be en- 
larged slightly by reaming. If a hole in one or more connecting 
plates has been omitted, it must be drilled in the field. 

If a hole is present where no rivet or bolt is required it should 
be plugged up with lead. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 55 

143. Is there any difference in the strength of riveting done in 
the shops and on the work? If so, which is the stronger and why? 

Riveting done in the shops is considered stronger than that done 
in the field. This is especially true of hand-driven rivets. With 
the modern pneumatic riveters, there should be no difference in 
the strength of shop and field work, although most specifications re- 
quire 25% more field than shop rivets in hand-driven work, and 
about 10% in the case of machine work. Shop rivets are con- 
sidered stronger, as they are driven under more favorable condi- 
tions as to handling of materials, heating of rivets and inspection 
of work. Of course machine-driven rivets can be more uniformly 
made than hand-driven. 

144. How would you inspect a job of riveting? 

With a special hammer weighing about a pound, blows are struck 
sharply on each side of the head of the rivet. 

Loose rivets will be indicated by jar or rattle. 

Also examine edges of rivet head, observing that there are no 
marks of caulking tool. See that the heads are concentric, fit 
closely all around and are free from cracks, and that no impress on 
the metal around the head has been made in driving the rivet. 

The rivet heads should be full size. 

145. In inspecting a heavy casting as a base of a column, what 
defects would you look for? 

In inspecting castings look for honeycomb. Blow-holes or sand- 
holes when filled with sand or loam are detected by a dullness in 
sound, upon tapping. Examine also for shrinkage cracks, large 
ridges at partings and flaws on edges. Warped castings or those 
that are incorrect in dimensions should be rejected. 

146. (a) Where bolts are to be used permanently in a piece of 
work, how is the strongest job obtained? (h) Which is the stronger, 
bolting or riveting, and why? 

(a) By drilling the holes in connecting parts, using a steel 
templet if necessary, (h) Riveting if well done is stronger than 
bolting, because the rivet is forced into the hole and fills it com- 
pletely, and the rivet heads upon cooling bind the members more 
firmly together. In riveted work, moisture cannot work into the 
joint and cause rust and deterioration. 

147. Are any precautions against wind ever necessary in the 
erection of iron work in a building, and if so, what? 



56 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

During erection the wind bracing and brackets must be con- 
nected up as quickly as possible, especially in a skeleton building 
in which the steelwork is carried up rapidly. Otherwise there may 
be a failure of portions of the ironwork during a high wind due to 
overstraining. 

148. How should specimens for testing he chosen and prepared 
to fairly show the quality of (a) wrought iron; (h) cast iron? 

(a) The test specimen for wrought iron can only be taken 
after the material is rolled and must be cut from the full-sized bar. 
The test piece for tensile strength, limit of elasticity, and ductility 
is usually cut about 18 in. long, the same thickness as the finished 
bar. (h) The test-bars for bending of cast iron are usually 3 in. 
wide by 1 in. thick and either 14 in. or 26 in. long. One is poured 
before and one after the casting is poured. The bars for tensile 
strength are about 18 in. long and usually turned down in a lathe 
in order to remove the exterior scale. They are marked similar to 
the specimens for wrought iron or steel. 

149. What conditions or quality of material or manufacture 
are indicated by the following tensile test results: (a) Elastic 
limit 38 000 lb. per sq. in., and ult. strength 45 000 lb. per sq. in. 
(h) Ultimate strength 80 000 lb. per sq. in., elongation in 8 'in., 
10%. (c) Ultimate strength 80 000 lb., elongation in 8 in., 25%. 
(d) Ultimate strength 56 000 lb., elongation in 8 in., 35%. 

(a) Shows low ultimate and high elastic limit usually found in 
material that has been punched or sheared, (h) The material is 
high carbon steel, (c) The material is rolled nickel steel (about 
3% nickel), possessing great tensile strength and ductility, {d) 
The material is soft or rivet steel. 

150. (a) What should be considered in -surface examination of 
material? (h) State defects likely to be found in both steel and cast 



(a) The material should be examined for — 

1. Color. 

2. Defects due to casting or rolling. 

3. Hardness. 

(h) The surface defects of steel are: Blow-holes and pipes; 
pits ; cinder spots ; stars ; cracks ; laps or laminations ; seams ; snakes 
and cobbles. 

The surface defects of cast iron are: Swells, scales and blisters, 
cold shorts, etc. 



IXSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 57 

151. What is (a) piping; (h) "burning;" (c) how do you in- 
spect to discover them? 

(a) A "pipe" is a cavity produced by the outside of an ingot 
cooling more rapidly than the inside. This defect usually occurs 
within conical lines in the upper third of the ingot. 

(h) "Burning" occurs when a piece of steel is overheated. 

(c) "Piping" is discovered in an ingot by cutting off the metal 
near the upper part. If an ingot having pipes is rolled into shapes 
the defect "will show in cavities in the rolled material. 

"Burning" is indicated by small cup-like holes. A burnt rivet 
throws off sparks upon being withdrawn from the fire. 



152. (a) What are the essential points to be inspected about 
riveting; (h) How are loose rivets made to seem tight under a 
hammer test; (c) how would you know deceit was practiced? 

(a) 1. The rivet metal must be tested for tensile strength, bend- 
ing and ductility. 

2. The holes must match correctly. 

3. Rivets must be heated correctly. 

4. Rivets must be driven to fill holes completely, with full con- 
centric heads. All rivets must be tight. 

(h) Loose rivets are sometimes made to appear tight by going 
round the edges with caulking-tool. Rivets are also made to ap- 
pear tight by placing the "snap" sideways upon the rivet and strik- 
ing it a few heavy blows with a sledge. 

(c) If a caulking-tool has been used, the marks left by the tool 
will be apparent upon close examination. If the "snap" has been hit 
sideways it will cut a ridge in the plate and force the metal against 
the head. 



153, State all the details to be inspected in the case of a finished 
girder for a plate girder bridge span. 

The Inspector should see that — 

1. The correct shapes and plates are used. 

2. That stiffeners bear tightly on top and bottom flange angles. 

3. The girder must be straight and true and the web must not 
project above the flange angles. 

4. The spacing and number of field holes must agree with those 
shown on plans. 

5. The length and all other dimensions of the girder must be 
correct. 

6. Web splices and all abutting surfaces must be made to close 
tightly. 



58 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

154. State all the details to be inspected in the case of a finished 
post for a pin-connected span. 

1. That correct shapes and plates are used and that all dimen- 
sions are correct. 

2. All rivets must be tight, and abutting surfaces must be made 
to close tightly. All parts must be free from twists and bends. 

3. The pin holes must be bored exactly perpendicular to the 
vertical plane passing through the center of the member, and the 
distance from center to center of pin holes must be correct. 

155. How would you check the field connections of (a) a skewed 
portal; (h) a lattice girder of which members are shipped separately? 

(a) Try the connections on a templet. 

(h) Assemble the girder in the shop before shipping. 

156. T\niat are the important points to be inspected about paint- 
ing to secure thorough preservation from rust? 

1. All material must be thoroughly scraped and cleaned with a 
steel brush before applying the paint. 

2. All surfaces which are to be in contact must have a coat of 
paint applied before riveting. 

3. The composition of the paint must comply with the specifi- 
cations. 

4. The paint must be well worked into all joints and open spaces. 

5. Pins, bored pin holes, friction rollers and screw threads must 
be coated with white lead and tallow before being shipped from the 
shop. 

157. In first-class work what variations are allowable in the fol- 
lowing: (a) Pin and pinhole connection; (h) riveted connection; 
(c) length of stringer; (d) length of floor beam; (e) length of eye- 
bar; how should the last be measured? 

(a) The allowable variation may be |o in. for pins less than 4^ 
in. diameter, and 3V in. for pins of a larger diameter. 
(h) Holes must match almost exactly. 

(c) Stringer may be tV in. short. 

(d) Floor beam fitting in between posts may be tf short. 

(e) Eye-bars may vary from the calculated lengths ^6 in. for 
each 25 ft. of their length. 

The centers of the holes are first marked on the eye-bars and this 
distance is measured. After the holes are bored the distances be- 
tween the tops of the holes and also between the bottoms are meas- 
ured. The average of these lengths will give the distance between 
the centers of holes. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 59 

158. In the storing of structural steel on the ground prior to 
erection, what general rules should be observed? 

The material must be carefully piled up on skids or timber so as 
not to touch the ground. All members should be so placed that 
they will shed rain-water. Material should be so placed as to re- 
quire the least amount of handling when needed for erection and 
cause as little interference with traffic as possible, 

159. Describe an erection sheet and state how you would use it. 

An erection sheet is an outline diagram of a structure giving 
the relative positions of all members and indicating each member 
by its shop mark. When a member has been received on the ground 
it should be checked on the erection diagram. 

160. (a) What is falsework? (h) What is it used for in bridge 
work? (c) Is falsework employed in the erection of all bridges? 
(d) Where falsework is being used and a considerable part of the 
bridge has been assembled on it, what particular feature of the 
falsework would you carefully inspect, and how often would you 
make the inspection? 

(a) and (h) Falsework consists of timber or steel columns, 
trestles, etc., built under a bridge or other structure to support the 
same during erection and until it has been connected up and is 
able to support itself. 

(c) Falsework is not necessary in the construction of cantilever 
bridges, or of plate girder and short truss bridges. 

(d) Examine the wedging and see whether the falseworks have 
settled below the correct position of the truss. This should be ex- 
amined every day. 

161. What are the essential points to be inspected about the fol- 
lowing processes: (a) Assembling; (b) punching? 

(a) In assembling, the inspector must see that the correct sizes, 
shapes and thicknesses of metal are put together, that the holes 
match, and that the correct sizes of holes are used. 

(h) In punching the inspector must examine the punch-dies to 
see that the edges of same are sharp and unbroken, and that the 
difference between the upper and lower die does not exceed -^ in.; 
also, that the holes are punched exactly at the points marked. 

162. Describe in detail the usual order of assembling the parts 
of a "through truss" riveted highway bridge. 

Chords are first laid down on falseworks with wedging at the 
panel points to allow for raising or lowering during assembling ; 



^0 LXSPECTOR— QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

the posts and diagonals of a panel are then put in place and lastly 
the top chord; the best way is to start at the center of the truss and 
work towards each end. 



163. What must be particularly noted in assembling connections 
regarding the surfaces which become inaccessible after assembly? 

Surfaces which are inacessible after assembling must be given 
two coats of paint before the parts are assembled. 

164. State what you would do, if in assembling you find a 
member bent or otherwise injured? 

Send the member to the straightening machines and have the 
defect remedied. 



165. How should large steel pins be driven in connections and 
how should they be protected? 

Large pins are driven into place by means of jacks. They are 
protected during driving by pilot heads and nuts. 



166. What is the object of each of the following tests of wrought 
steel: (a) Cold bend; (h) hot bend; (c) quench and bend; (d) 
drift? 

(a) To test cold-shortness or the presence of phosphorus. 
(6) To test hot-shortness (containing sulphur, arsenic, etc.). 

(c) To see whether it will stand hardening. 

(d) Made to see how much a rivet hole can be enlarged under 
different conditions without fracturing the material. 



167. In high buildings with iron or .steel columns how should 
the abutting faces on flanges of superimposed columns be finished? 
Should the use of lead or shims of iron be allowed between such sur- 
faces when the pressures are heavy? 

All cast-iron, wrought-iron and steel columns should have their 
bearings faced smooth and at right angles to the axis of the column, 
and when one column rests upon another they should be securely 
fastened together without lead or iron shims between them. 

168. What is the law regarding open columns? 
They must have their ends covered with bed-plates. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 61 

169. How should iron cribbing be treated before being laid i 

When used below high water, it should be entirely coated with 
coal tar or paraffine varnish before being placed. Iron footings for 
columns must be similarly treated if below water level. 

170. To what points should you give attention in erecting iron- 
work in buildings? 

See that the parts are of the required sizes and properly con- 
nected by a sufficient number of rivets ; that all the rivets are 
properly headed and fast; that the different parts are not exces- 
sively strained due to certain members being short or long. That 
the parts of columns are well centred. 

171. How may beams be strengthened at supports? 

They may be strengthened by struts or else by cushion rafters. 

172. What is a cantilever and why is this construction used in 
large buildings? 

A cantilever is a wooden or iron block or beam projecting from 
a wall or column to bear mouldings, balconies and the like. The 
principle is applied in the construction of bridges to support enor- 
mous weights. It is also used to enable a symmetrical spreading of 
the foundations in large buildings. 

173. What factor of safety shall be allowed in computing the 
sizes of beams, girders or pieces taking transverse strains ? 

Factors of safety varying from 4 to 10 should be used, depend- 
ing upon the materials and other conditions. 



^2 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

INSPECTOK OF EEGULATING, GEADING AND 
PAVESTG. 

174. Name the principal pavements used in city streets. 

The principal pavements are: 

Asphalt (sheet and block), stone block (cobble, Belgian and 
granite), wood block, brick, and macadam. 

175. Describe the characteristics of a first-class pavement for 
use in the city. 

A good pavement should be impervious, hard, durable, noiseless 
and clean. It should afford a good foothold for horses, be adapted 
to all grades, and all classes of traffic. It should be cheap and easy 
to repair. 

176. State what you understand by the term "regulating." 

Regulating in highway construction refers to the operation of 
fixing lines and grades for the guidance of the workmen, and to 
define the limits of the work. 

177. What do you understand to be the difference between ma- 
terials classified as rock and those classified as earth in paying for 
grading jobs? How is the classification determined? 

In grading jobs, materials are usually classified as follows: 

Earth Excavation — which includes clay, sand, loam, etc., or 
these materials intermixed with boulders measuring less than 1 
cu. yd. 

Loose Rock — which includes all stone and detached rock in 
masses less than 3 cu. yd; also, slate and other rock that can be 
quarried without blasting. 

Solid rock, which includes all rock found in place in ledges and 
masses, which can only be removed by blasting. 

178. Describe the steps of construction of a first-class pave- 
ment and street to take the place of a common dirt road. 

The road is first surveyed and cross-sectioned, profiles prepared 
and grades established. 

The cross-section is planned, showing the dimensions and char- 
acter of the pavement and foundation. 

The road is staked out, grade stakes being set at centre, curbs, 
house lines and slopes, with depth of cut or fill indicated. 

The excavation for both curb and roadway is then made to sub- 
grade. The bottom is drained, flushed, tamped, freed of all poor 
material (which is replaced with good soil or sand), and brought to 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. ' 63 

an even surface parallel to the finished paving. The curbs should 
then be set. 

Upon the subgrade a layer of concrete is spread for the founda- 
tion, having its top surface parallel to finished pavement. 

Upon the concrete is spread a cushion layer of sand or a binder 
layer of asphalt and stone, depending upon the kind of covering to 
be used. 

Upon this the final and finishing layer of blocks or asphalt is 
laid. 

The construction of the sidewalks proceeds at the same time and 
in substantially the same order. 

179. Where a high embankment is to be made in grading a street, 
state (a) whether it makes any difference how the material is dis- 
tributed, and if so what the rule is. (h) Give your reasons. 

(a) The best way is to spread the fill in horizontal layers from 
9 to 18 in. deep, flush each layer with water and compact by rolling 
with a heavy roller. 

The method ordinarily followed is to complete the construction 
of the embankment to a certain height by dumping over the end, 
leaving same for a time to settle, and then depositing a second 
layer in the same way, and so on. 

(h) The first method is the best because it reduces settlement 
of the embankment to a minimum. Settling of the embankment is 
injurious to the pavement and may cause its entire destruction. 

180. State fully and clearly everything to be done in prepar- 
ing the ground surface for and laying a telford road, with macadam 
surface. 

The surface of the roadbed must be graded uniformly to a depth 
of 18 in. below the finished surface, and compressed by rolling. On 
this is laid a course of large, irregular-shaped stones about 10 
in. deep, 6 in. wide and 15 in. long. The broadest edge is placed 
on the earth bed, and the wedge-shaped spaces between the stones 
are filled with smaller pieces and chips of stones. The projecting 
corners of the large stones are broken off with hammers. On the 
surface of the telford foimdation a 4-in. layer of broken stones (not 
greater than 2^ in. in their largest diameter) is laid, sprinkled 
and rolled; dry trap screenings are rolled into the interstices of the 
broken stone; the top 4-in. layer of broken stones is then laid, no 
stones being greater than 2 in. in their largest diameter; this is 
sprinkled and rolled, until brought to the true grade. A surface 
coat of screenings is then applied, thoroughly soaked by sprinkling 
and worked into the interstices of the top layer by rolling with a 
roller of not less than 4 000 lb. to the foot of width. 



64 INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

181. State the essential points of a first-class stone block pave- 
ment. 

1. Quality of the stones.— They should not be too hard or 
capable of taking any polish, and should afford good foothold for 
horses. 

2. Size. — Depth should be about 7 in., width not more than 4 in., 
and length 9 to 12 in. They should be well squared. 

3. Foundation. — Should be constructed of hydraulic cement con- 
crete, 4 to 9 in. thick, depending upon the character of the trafiic. 

4. Cushion course. — A |-in. layer of sand, clean, dry and free 
from pebbles, should be spread over the concrete. 

5. Laying. — Should start at the sides and proceed toward the 
center and the whole row keyed tightly. Joints should be broken 
and as narrow as possible. Blocks must be well rammed and low 
blocks removed and properly replaced. 

6. Blocks should be laid in parallel courses at right angles to 
axis of street. 

7. Joints should be filled with paving pitch and gravel and a 
layer of sand should finally be spread over the blocks. 

8. At intersections the blocks should be laid diagonally or as 
usually called in the "Herring-bone" fashion. 

182. Is it detrimental, in your opinion, to pave stones of different 
depth in the same row in a pavement, and if so, why? 

Yes. If the stones in the same row are not uniform in depth 
they are liable to settle unequally under traffic, causing hollows- 
and ridges, and eventually destroying the pavement. 

183. In what way is poor work done by pavers in selecting and 
placing paving blocks? 

1. By not placing blocks of a uniform width and depth in the 
sanie row. 

2. By not ramming the blocks to a firm bearing and even sur- 
face. 

3. By not breaking joints properly. 

4. By not pouring the required quantity of paving pitch into the 
joints. 

184. What is meant by "back-ramming" and what is its object?' 

The operation of ramming newly-laid blocks often causes blocks 
which have been previously rammed to loosen up slightly. "Back- 
ramming" refers to the operation of bringing these blocks back to 
firm bearing. 



INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 65 

185. Describe in your own language a perfect paving brick, con- 
sidering (a) its form, finish and dimensions; (h) the materials of 
which it is composed and its physical condition. 

(a) "Standard" paving-bricks are 2i by 4 by 8 in. They should be 
annealed, non-porous, close in texture, have clean, sharp edges and 
be uniform in size and appearance. 

(h) The clay employed in the manufacture of paving-brick must 
be rich in silica, free from lime, and able to withstand without 
fusing a red heat for a sufficient len^h of time to render the 
bricks hard, homogeneous and impervious to water. 

The physical properties of a good paving'-brick are : 

1. It is not acted on by acids. 

2. It does not absorb more than ^^ of its weight of water in 48 
hours' immersion. 

3. It is not susceptible to polish. 

4. It is rough to the touch, resembling fine sandpaper. 

5. To give a clear, ringing sound when struck with another. 

6. When broken, to show a compact, uniform, close-grained 
structure, free from air-holes and pebbles. Marked laminations are 
bad defects. 

7. Not to spall, chip, or scale when quickly struck on the edges. 

8. Hard, but not brittle. 



186. Describe the construction of a first-class brick pavement. 

The bricks should be of the best quality paving-brick, annealed 
and 2i in. x 4 in. x 8 in. in size. 

The street should be excavated to subgrade, all objectionable 
material removed and replaced by firm soil or sand, and the bottom 
watered and rolled, so that it will be parallel to the finished surface. 

Upon this layers of gravel and sand or concrete and sand are 
spread for foundation and cushion courses. 

The bricks are laid on the prepared bed of sand. They should 
be laid on edge at right angles to the axis of the street and break 
joints by 3 in. or more. Xo broken bricks should be permitted, ex- 
cept at closing points. 

Before closing they should be compressed by iron bars and then 
keyed by close-fitting bricks. After 25 or 30 ft. of paving are com- 
pleted, the bricks should be rammed with 50-lb. rammers and all 
low bricks removed and properly replaced. 

The joints are then filled with sand, cement or paving pitch, 
and a layer of i in. of dry sand spread over the entire surface. 

187. State all the points to be observed in laying an asphalt pave- 
ment over an old cobblestone pavement. 



ee 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 



The surface of old pavement should be thoroughly cleaned by- 
sweeping with stiff brooms until all dirt, etc., has been removed 
from the surface and from the joints to a depth of about 1 in. 

The surface is then evened up and brought parallel to the fin- 
ished grade by excavation if necessary, all depressions being filled 
with binder or concrete. Upon the blocks thus prepared a binder 
course is laid consisting of paving-pitch and 1^-in. broken stone, 
1 gallon to the yard. The surface of the binder is made parallel to 
the finished surface. The stone used in the binder should be 
heated. The wearing surface of asphalt is then laid and rolled upon 
the binder to the required thickness, and covered with a thin coat- 
ing of hydraulic cement. 

188. (a) What are the principal requirements in relaying asphalt 
pavements? (h) In relaying block pavements? 

(a) In relaying asphalt pavements the sub-grade must be brought 
to a true surface, well rammed and free from all objectionable 
matter. 

The foundation course of blocks or concrete must be carefully 
laid and bonded with the adjoining portions of the old foundation. 
The binder is then put on. It should also be well bonded with the 
adjacent portion of the old binder. In joining the old work with 
the new, the old must be cleaned and stripped of disintegrated or 
loose portions and in the case of concrete thoroughly wetted. 

The wearing surface is then laid and well tamped with hot irons 
where it joins the old work. 

The new surface is thoroughly rolled until it presents a uniform 
appearance with the old. 

(&) In relaying block pavements the surface at sub-grade, as well 
as the concrete foundation and cushion coat, should be brought true 
and well tamped, so that when the blocks are rammed they will be 
firm and present an even surface without ruts or depressions. Sand 
must be used to adjust sub-grade when necessary. The blocks 
should fit properly and not work loose, and must be well bonded 
into the old pavement. The joints are then filled with pitch and 
gravel and a layer of sand spread over the new work. 

189. (a) In preparation of the surface of concrete to receive 
binder or of binder to receive a subsequent coat of asphalt, name two 
essential things to be guarded against, (h) State why. 

(a) No water or moisture must be present on the surface of the 
concrete or binder. 

The surface of the foundation should not be left too smooth, so 
that a good bond will be secured. 

(h) When the hot asphalt is applied to a damp surface, the 
water is immediately turned into steam, which tries to escape 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 67 

through the heated material. As soon as the pavement is sub- 
jected to traffic, the fissures formed by the steam appear on the sur- 
face, and the whole pavement quickly falls to pieces. 

If the asphalt pavement is not well bonded with the foundation 
it tends to slip under the action of traffic and roll up into waves. 

190. Which would you consider the best finish to leave on the 
surface of a concrete bed for an asphalt pavement, that it should 
be smooth or left rough? State your reasons. 

A slightly rough surface is better than a perfectly smooth finish, 
because it gives a better bond between the asphalt pavement and 
the concrete foundation, and it also prevents the slipping of the 
asphalt surface on the foundation. 



191. (a) What is the proper temperature at which asphalt should 
be brought on the work? (h) What effects are produced by its being 
either too hot or too cold. State each. 

(a) 250° F. 

(h) If the asphalt is overheated it is decomposed and loses its 
adhesive qualities. 

If the asphalt becomes too cold on the work it hardens and can- 
not then be worked to the correct shape of the roadway. 



192. State how you can tell whether the paving-pitch has been 
overheated or not. What is the result of overheating on its wearing 
qualities ? 

If paving-pitch is overheated it becomes coked, in which con- 
dition it is brittle and useless. 

193. State as nearly as you can the causes for (a) the forma- 
tion of long cracks across an asphalt street, (h) The shoving up 
into waves, (c) The breaking up or wear in spots. 

(a) Due to unequal contraction of surface asphalt and of binder 
in very cold weather; also to irregular settlement of foundation. 

(h) Under extreme heat the asphalt is liable to become so soft 
that it will roll, or creep under traffic and present a wavy appear- 
ance. 

(c) Usually due to the disintegrating effects of standing water. 

Also due to carelessness in relaying pavement after it has been 
taken up. Fires on the streets will also cause bad spots in the 
asphalt. 



^8 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

194. (a) How may water affect an asphalt pavement after it is 
laid, and where is this effect most likely to occur? (h) State what 
is done to prevent this? 

(a) Water, if permitted to remain npon the pavement, causes 
the asphalt to disintegrate. This effect is most likely to occur in 
the gutters. 

(h) The gutters for a width of 12 in. next to curb must be coated 
Avith hot, pure asphalt, and smoothed with hot smoothing irons in 
order to saturate the pavement with an excess of asphalt; or the 
gutters may be constructed of paving-blocks well bonded into the 
asphalt. 

195. (a) What is the least grade that is desirable for the gutters 
of a street? (h) Where the grade between two intersections is too 
flat, by what expedient may better grades be obtained without dis- 
turbing the crossystreets ? 

(a) The least gutter grade is about one-half per cent. 

(h) Accommodation summits are put at the center of the main 
streets, thus giving them a slight fall towards the crossings and 
causing the water to flow in both directions from the summit. 

196. What are the minimum and maximum allowable grades 
(a) for granite block pavement? (h) For asphalt pavement? (c) 
Wood? (d) Macadam? 

Minimum Maximum 

Grade. Grade. 

(a) Granite block 1.5% 10% and over 

(h) Asphalt 0.5% 2i% 

(c) Wood 0.7% 5% 

(d) Macadam. 1.0% 5% 

Grades outside of these limits are, however, occasionally em- 
ployed. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 69 

INSPECTOR OF SEWERS. 

197. What are the essential requirements in a well-constructed 
sewer ? 

A well-constructed sewer — 

1. Must have a solid foundation. 

2. Must be laid to true line and grade. 

3. Must have a velocity of flow sufficient to prevent settlement, 
but not high enough to cause "scour." 

4. Must be constructed water-tight. 

5. Must have manholes at summits and valleys and at all changes 
of direction, and enough lamp -holes to permit thorough examination. 

6. Must be laid below frost line and low enough to take the 
waste from all houses along its route. 

7. The outlet must be carried to a point where it will not cause 
a nuisance, or be a menace to health. 

198. Describe (a) your inspection of bricks delivered on the 
work for a sewer; and (h) the only right way of laying the same to 
insure tight work. 

(a) The bricks must have the proper color, and be free from 
cracks or flaws. No bats are to be used. The bricks must be culled 
upon delivery on the ground; the inspector should immediately send 
samples, selected at random, to the laboratory for such tests as he 
cannot make on the ground. A brick should not absorb more than 
about one-tenth of its weight of water, should emit a clear, ringing 
sound when struck a sharp blow, and when broken should show a 
compact, uniform structure, hard and somewhat glassy, and be free 
from air bubbles, cracks, cavities and lumps. 

(h) Every brick is required to be laid in full mortar joints, on 
bottom, sides and ends, which for each brick is to be performed in 
one operation. 



199. Outline speciflcations for building a brick sewer. 

The bricks shall be of best quality, hard-burned, free from cracks, 
and have true, even faces. 

They must be thoroughly wet before laying. 

Each brick must be laid in full mortar joints on bottom, sides 
and ends, which must be performed in one operation. 

Hydraulic cement mortar should be used. 

No mortar is to be worked in after brick is laid. 

Joints should not exceed | in. in thickness. 

Brickwork should be properly bonded and arches keyed. 

Cement and sand should be of proper quality and properly mixed. 



70 IXSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

The mortar should be used right after mixing; no mortar which 
has begun to set should be used. 

No work should be done in freezing weather. 

Every second course should be laid with a line. 

The foundation must be firm and unyielding. 

Centres must be of proper form and dimensions and proper care 
observed in "striking" same. 

200. What is the best bond for brick sewers? 

The best bond is the rowlock bond, which consists of concentric 
rings, each longitudinal course breaks joints with the adjacent 
courses and with the rings above and below. All bricks are laid as 
stretchers. 

201. Where are headers used in a circular brick sewer and why 
are they so used? 

Most specifications prohibit the use of headers in brick sewers, 
especially in the upper or arched portion. In large brick sewers, 
however, where three or more rings of brick are used, the rings are 
laid alternately as headers and stretchers with such modifications 
as are necessary to secure a perfect bond. 

202. Describe the proper method of keying a brick arch. 

The usual specification is as follows: 

In keying the arch no headers are to be used. The inner and 
outer courses of stretchers are to be carried over and keyed sepa- 
rately, and each course in the crown of the arch is to be thoroughly 
grouted. 

203. How and when should centres be struck? 

Centres should not be struck before the mortar has had ample 
time to set. They should then be struck s© as to bring the pressure 
uniformly upon the arch. 

204. What are the rules governing the insertion of spurs in 
brick sewers, as to location, direction, etc.? 

Spurs are usually spaced about 12 ft. 6 in. along the sewer point- 
ing alternately towards house lines or opposite sides of street; this 
gives one spur for each 25-ft. front lot. The spurs must enter near 
the top of the sewer section and point in the direction of the flow. 

205. Describe alteration in line of a large brick sewer and method 
of caring for the flow meanwhile. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 71 

The sewer is first built along the new line, and when ready to 
join on to the old work a bulkhead of brick or cement bags is built 
at the points where the change of line begins and ends, the arch 
between the points having already been removed. A temporary 
flume (or flumes) of sufficient size to carry the greatest flow, having 
the ends built into the bulkheads, is suspended or supported in 
the line of the old sewer, and far enough above the old invert to 
permit the construction of the new invert at the points of con- 
nection. The old invert is now removed, the new work built and the 
connections made, after which the bulkhead and flume are removed 
and the flow turned into the new sewer. 



206. Outline specification for back-filling subway near adjacent 
sewer. 

Filling should consist of sand, gravel or good, clean earth free 
from stones over 8 in. in diameter and not containing more than one 
portion of stone to three of earth. It should be deposited in layers 
not more than 9 in. thick, watered and packed by rammers weighing 
not less than 30 lb., and in such manner that no unbalanced pressure 
can be thrown upon subway or sewer. Filling must be carefully 
packed and rammed about sewer, using special tools. No filling 
should be made with frozen earth. Sheeting should be carefully 
withdrawn as fast as filling progresses or may be left in place. 



207. In building a large sewer where quicksand is encountered 
(a) how would you proceed to get sound work? (h) Under what 
conditions does quicksand of itself make a good foundation? 

(a) In excavating for the foundation the width of the trench 
should be 2 to 4 ft. more than is required for the masonry. The 
sides should be very strongly braced by sheeting. Double wall lin- 
ings should be used and provided with a cutting edge at the bottom, 
strongly braced between walls and filled with clay and sand. The 
excavation should proceed under the cutting edge, leaving a core 
at the center which is gradually removed with the sinking of the 
lining until a good foundation is secured. The excavation can be 
facilitated by forcing cement grout into the quicksand, solidifying 
the mass, or freezing the mass by the usual freezing process. When 
the proper depth is reached piles may be driven with butt end down 
into the underlying strata to solid bearing and the sewer built on 
the piles in the usual manner. 

(h) When quicksand is so confined and drained as to prevent 
flowing or displacement of same, it will make a safe foundation. 



72 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

208. How frequently should catch-basins be placed along a 
street, and what rule governs this? How frequently should man- 
holes be placed? 

Catch-basins should be placed at all low points in the street 
where considerable water is apt to collect. On long grades catch- 
basins are placed at every street intersection where the grades 
"permit. 

Manholes should be placed every 100 ft. for small sewers; for 
large sewers this distance may be from 200 to 500 ft., depend- 
ing upon their size. They should be frequent enough to permit 
cleaning and afford proper ventilation for the sewers. 

209. What is a flush-tank and what are its uses? 

A flush-tank is a device for periodically flushing a sewer by 
automatically and rapidly discharging a large quantity of water 
into it. It is usually placed at dead ends of sewers, where material 
is apt to collect. 

It is an essential feature of the separate system in which no 
storm water is permitted to reach the sewers. The water for oper- 
ating the tank is supplied by the regular mains. 

210. It is necessary to rebuild 100 ft. of a 48-in. brick sewer with 
considerable flow of water through it; describe completely the opera- 
tion. . 

The top of the sewer, is first removed. To take the flow during 
construction, a flume is built at the bottom of the^ sewer starting 
a little beyond each side of the 100-ft. length which is to be rebuilt. 
The sides and bottom of the sewer are now removed, the flume be- 
ing firmly supported at all stages of the operation. The con- 
struction of new foundation and the lower half of the sewer is then 
proceeded with; after the brickwork has set the flume is removed 
so as to divert the regular flow into the new invert, and the upper 
half of the sewer is completed. 

211. Describe the rules that must now be observed in laying 
pipe sewers. 

The pipe must be laid true to grade and line, and each length 
properly bedded. A recess must be cut in the bottom of the trench 
to receive the socket of the pipe. 

The spigot-end of each pipe must be properly entered and sent 
home into the socket of the adjoining pipe. 

The gasket of hemp or oakum must be properly used. The socket 
should not be filled with it to the exclusion of the mortar. 



INSPECTOR — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 73 

The joints must be carefully filled with cement mortar all 
around. 

Spurs must be closed with suitable stoppers if not to be used 
immediately. 

The backfilling must be carefully done; no stones should be 
used for filling within one foot of the pipe, and the material must 
be tamped with suitable tampers to insure compactness. 

212. Describe in detail the method of laying a 30-in. cast-iron 
pipe. 

The trench should be dug 4^ ft. wide, and at joints deep enough 
to permit access for caulking. Two blocks and four wedges are 
then laid on line a little below grade of pipes. The pipes are rolled 
over the trench, raised by a derrick and lowered into position, bells 
facing up hill. They are then raised to true grade by means of the 
wedges ; the spigots should be entered well into the bell and be con- 
centric with same. The gasket of oakum is driven into the annular 
opening, leaving about 3 in. for the lead. The lead is run in one 
operation so as to leave a projecting bead which is driven in by 
caulking, making perfectly tight joints. 

213. Suppose the top of the grade stake set at one end of a 25-ft. 
length of se-^er was 13 ft. 3 in. above grade, and at the other end 
11 ft. 7 in. above grade ; how would you fix grade line ? 

Upon the stake whose top is 13 ft. 3 in. above grade, mark a 
point 2 ft. 3 in. below top; also mark a point 7 in. below the top of 
the other stake. A string stretched taut between the points thus 
marked will be parallel to, and 11 ft. above grade. Points on grade 
are readily obtained by measuring down 11 ft. from the string. 

214. Describe a good job of tamping earth around a sewer,* giv- 
ing best arrangement of men and other requirements. 

The trench should be filled with layers not exceeding 4 in. thick 
in the loose, and the earth used is not to be dumped in piles, but is 
to be spread evenly and compressed by iron tampers. The number 
of men using tamping irons should be in the proportion of four 
tampers to one shoveller. In case of pipe sewers, special precau- 
tions are necessary. The earth must be carefully laid in, tamped, 
and solidly rammed down, under and around the pipes, with proper 
tools made for this purpose. 

215. How soon can filling-in be done- about a pipe sewer ? What 
governs this? 

The back-filling should not be commenced in the case of a pipe 
sewer until the cement joints have hardened sufficiently. 



"74 INSPECTOR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

216. How much clearance in a trench should be allowed each 
side of a sewer to obtain good work? 

One foot. 

217. Under what conditions would you think it desirable to leave 
the sheeting in a trench and why? 

In soft ground the lower course of sheeting should not be re- 
moved after the arch of the sewer has been built, as the arch is 
liable to crack if uneven settlement of the material above takes 
place. 

218. Of what are soil pipes constructed and where trapped? 

All mains, soil, waste or vent pipes must be constructed of iron, 
steel or brass. Soil pipes when connected with any fixtures must be 
trapped before entering the sewer and the trap so arranged that it 
can be reached for cleaning and be protected from frost. 

219. Why should traps be connected with vent pipes? 

To carry off any gases collecting in the traps, and insure proper 
ventilation. Otherwise, the gases might force the seal in the traps 
and work back into the house. 

220. What kind of traps may be used? What are their sizes and 
how set? 

Only water-seal traps may be used with a seal of at least li in. 
They must be well supported and set true with regard to their water 
level. The discharge from any fixture must not pass through more 
than one trap before reaching the house drain. 

221. When shall sewer connections be made? 

The connections should be made before the walls are carried 
above the foundations. 

222. What do you understand a fresh-air inlet to be for ? 

It is used to furnish fresh air to the house drain just inside the 
house trap. It should extend to the surface or into a box and have 
a return bend. 



<U8221) 



MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 

FOR 

ENGINEERING POSITIONS 

IN THE 

SERVICE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

IN THREE VOLUMES 

Vol. I. AXEMAN, CHAINMAN and RODMAN, LEVELER, 

TRANSITMAN and COMPUTER 
Vol. II. ASSISTANT ENGINEER 
Vol. III. DRAFTSMAN and INSPECTOR 



APPENDIX 

Examinations for Civil Engineering Positions 

IN 

FEDERAL, STATE AND MUNICIPAL SERVICE OUTSIDE 
OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK (INCLUDING 
PANAMA CANAL AND UNITED 
STATES NAVY) . 



INDEX 




General Appendix 1. 


General Appendix II. 




United States Civil 
Service (Miscel- 
laneous) . . . 3 to 43 


New York State 

Civil Service . 95 to 
Municipal Civil 
Service 

Buffalo . , 153 to 
Boston . . . 1 59 to 
New Orleans 177 to 
Chicago . . 188 to 


152 


United States Civil 
Service (Panama 
Canal) ... 43 to 47 

United States Navy 48 to 94 


176 
187 
192 



NEW YORK: 

The Engineering News Publishing Co. 

1906 



Copyright, 1906, by 
The Engineering News Publishing Co. 



GENERAL APPENDIX L 

CIVIL SEEYICE OF THE UNITED STATES— GEN EKAL 
INFORMATION AND PREVIOUS EXAMINA- 
TION PAPERS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

In order to increase the range of usefulness of the "Manual of 
Examinations for Civil Engineering Positions in the City of New 
York" and answer the many queries that have come to the publishers 
in reference to Civil Service outside the city, the following appendix 
is introduced. The appendix gives the examination requirements, 
previous examination papers, and number of positions open wherever 
obtainable. The examination papers include the Federal Service, 
United States Navy, New York State, Boston, Chicago, and other 
important cities. It is hoped that the collection of previous exami- 
nation questions will prove useful to instructors and students in 
Technical Schools and to Civil Service Examiners, as well as to 
applicants for Civil Service positions. 

Interleaving has been introduced to provide space for notes, 
sketches and additions. 

The publishers will appreciate the receipt of Examination 
Papers, etc., not included in this compilation, from Civil Service 
Authorities and others for use in future editions. 



OPPOKTUJSTITIES FOR ENGINEERING GRADUATES IN 
THE SERVICE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT * 

The civil service of the government is a vast organization, 
including more than a quarter of a million people. 

There are about 2 600 opportunities for engineering graduates in 
the government service, excluding West Point, the Isthmian Canal, 
and positions paying less than $700 per annum. For 46 per cent, 
of these positions the pay is between $700 and $1 400 per year ; for 
about 32 per cent., from $1 500 to $1 900 ; for 18 per cent., $2 000 to 
$2 900 ; for three per cent., $3 000 to $3 900 ; and for nearly one per 
cent., $4 000 or over. These figures are for salary only, they do not 
include allowances for expenses, subsistence and quarters furnished, 
etc., which are received by many. 

There are nearly 700 opportunities under the Chief of Engineers 
of the army for engineering graduates. This force includes 180 
assistant engineers or superintendents, 150 junior engineers, and 70 
draftsmen. The lake survey is a part of this group of 700. 

There are more than 500 opportunities in connection with navy 
yards and naval stations. This includes 40 civil engineers and con- 
structors, and nearly 400 draftsmen. 

In the engineering force of the Reclamation Service, under the 
Geological Survey, there are 360 engineers. This service is growing 
very rapidly and will probably continue to do so for several years. 
Hence, it furnishes the best chance in the government service for 
the rapid advancement of unusually able men, with the possible 
exception of the Panama Canal work. 

Three hundred patent examiners are employed in the Patent 
Office. 

In the Coast and Geodetic Survey there are 130 opportunities 
for engineering graduates; 90 in the field force, 20 as draftsmen, 
and 20 as computers. 

There are 130 opportunities under the General Land Office. 

The remaining 500 opportunities are scattered through the ser- 
vice. The largest groups are in the Topographic Branch of the 
Geological Survey, in the Revenue Cutter Service in charge of 
marine engines, under the Supervising Architect as superintendent, 
and in the engineer department of the District of Columbia. 

New appointments are being made at the rate of about 200 per 
year to repair the waste in the force of 2 600, and to produce the 
steady expansion which is normally in progress. 

Nearly all of the 2 600 positions are in the classified service, to 
which entrance is guarded by the Civil Service Commission and 
♦ From Vol. XIII. Proc. Soc. for the Promotion of Engineering Education. ' 



UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. O 

from whom full information concerning the examinations may be 
obtained. 

For many examinations, especially examinations requiring tech- 
nical qualifications, the Civil Service Commission distributes special 
printed announcements about one month in advance of the exami- 
nation. Any professor of engineering may have all such announce- 
ments, covering specified lines, sent to him regularly merely by 
making a request in writing to that effect. The student, or graduate, 
may also, as an individual, apply for these announcements and 
receive them as they appear. 

Do not write for an application blank for an examination which 
has not yet been officially announced. 

By using the manual and annual report and the special an- 
nouncements of examinations, the professor of engineering may 
keep in close touch with nearly all the opportunities for appointment 
of his graduates to the classified civil service, except the following 
two large classes. 

First, the five hundred positions which have been referred to in 
connection with the navy yards and naval stations are filled by 
examinations held under the direction of the Navy Department, not 
the Civil Service Commission. Many of these examinations are 
advertised and held only in the locality in which the appointment is 
to be made. Information in regard to these examinations must be 
obtained at the Navy Department at Washington, or from the officers 
having local charge of the work. 

Second, there are two methods of entrance to the position of 
junior engineer under the Chief of Engineers; namely, by a civil 
service examination, known as the "civil engineer, departmental 
service" examination, and by promotion from lower grades in the 
service, under the Chief of Engineers, suich, for example, as inspec- 
tor, recorder, transitman, levelman, rodman, or chainman. Appoint- 
ments are made to these lower grades from registers of eligibles 
established at various points by local boards of civil service exam- 
iners, without examination. Any employee may be promoted from 
one of these lower grades to the grade of junior engineer on the 
recommendation of his employing officer, provided he passes the 
appropriate examination held under the direction of the Civil Service 
Commission. If he holds a diploma of graduation in an engineering 
course from an approved technical school he may, after one year's 
service, be so promoted without examination. This is the class to 
which your attention is especially called. For more complete data 
apply to the Chief of Engineers for the circular known as "informa- 
tion concerning positions under the engineer department at large." 

Information in regard to rates of promotion, prospects of pro- 
motion, character of service required, and the conditions of service, 
must, in general, be obtained from the different bureaus or depart- 



6 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

ments concerned in much the same way that it is obtained in regard 
to positions outside the government service; that is, by correspond- 
ence or personal acquaintance with those in charge or with the 
employees. Such information cannot, except to a limited extent, be 
obtained from the Civil Service Commission. 

Promotions in the government service are made on merit. Merit 
is, as a rule, ascertained in much the same manner as in any large 
organization, by observations of the employee's work by his official 
superiors. It is placed on record by the recommendations of those 
superiors. 

In the Keclamation Service, such recommendations are all placed 
twice a year in the hands of a committee of three men of high rank 
in the service who have a wide acquaintance with the personnel. 
This committee virtually decides what promotions shall be made, 
subject, of course, to approval. A similar system is in force in the 
Geological Survey as a whole. 

Under the Chief of Engineers, promotions from junior engineer 
to assistant engineer depend upon recommendations by the official 
superiors, but are also subject to two conditions. The candidate 
must, at some time, have passed the civil engineer examination before 
the Civil Service Commission, and he must possess the professional 
qualifications that are required for full membership in the American 
Society of Civil Engineers. In general, an assistant engineer is 
selected from among the junior engineers in the district in which 
he is to serve. That is, the civilian employees in general stay in a 
given district on the work with which they are familiar, though the 
officers of the Corps of Engineers, under whom they serve, are 
periodically transferred from station to station. 

As a rule, any attempt on the part of a government employee to 
bring political influence to bear to secure a promotion is interpreted 
as a confession on his part that he does not feel that he has sufficient 
merit to warrant promotion. The confession is apt to be taken at 
face value. Such confessions are rare. 



INEORMATION EELATIVE TO EMPLOYMENT IN THE 
PHILIPPINE CIVIL SERVICE.* 

Opportunities. — The civil service of the Philippine Islands offers 
excellent opportunities to qualified persons, both in the matter of 
salary and promotion. Under the operation of the civil-service law 
promotions may be made on the basis of merit from the lowest to the 
highest positions, and the records of that service indicate that quali- 
fied appointees have been rapidly advanced. 

Age Limits. — The age limits for the service are 18 to 40 years 
unless otherwise expressly stated. 

* Extract from Rules of U. S. C. S. Comm. 



UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. i 

Photographs and Medical Examination Kequired. — Each appli- 
cant for the Philippine service will be required to submit to the 
examiner, on the day he is examined, a recent photograph, taken not 
more than three years ago, of himself, which will be filed with hi& 
examination papers as a means of identification in case he receives 
appointment. An unmounted photograph is preferred. The date,, 
place, and kind of examination, the examination number, the com- 
petitor's name, and the year in which the photograph was taken 
should be indicated on the photograph. 

The medical certificate in Eorm 2 must be filled in by some 
medical officer in the service of the United States. Special arrange- 
ments have been made with pension examining boards throughout 
the country to give such examination for a fee of $2, to be paid by 
the applicant. If such boards can not be conveniently visited, appli- 
cants should appear before medical officers of the Army, Navy, 
Indian Service, or Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. 

The medical officer should indicate his rank or official designation 
on such certificate. 

Transfers. — Under a recent amendment to the Federal civil- 
service rules, employees who have regularly served for three years in 
the Philippine civil service are eligible for transfer to similar posi- 
tions in the Federal service. 

Climate. — The climate is good, and nearly all the employees are 
in excellent health. There is continuous warm weather in the Phil- 
ippines, but the heat is not intense, and the general health of Ameri- 
can civilians who take reasonable care of themselves is good. During 
the greater part of the year Americans sufiter less from the heat than 
during the summer months in many parts of the United States. 
From April to July is the hottest period. From July to October there 
are frequent rains which cool the atmosphere, and from about the 
middle of November to the middle of March the weather is, as a 
rule, clear and pleasant. The nights during this period are cool; in 
fact, the nights are generally pleasant during the whole of the year, 
with the exception of possibly two or three months. It may also be 
stated that China and Japan are near at hand and are favorite 
places to visit during vacations. Within twelve hours' travel of 
Manila, in the province of Benguet, where it is understood the 
summer capital is to be located, the climate is cool, and as the 
province is convenient and easily accessible it affords an excellent 
place at which to seek recuperation. 

Clothing. — Americans usually dress in white drill suits. Those 
who go to the Philippines will find it to their financial advantage to 
wait until they reach Manila before purchasing any clothing for use 
in that climate. Serviceable white cotton drill suits are made to 
order in Manila for about $3 eacli>-^tleavier clothing, adapted to the 
climate at times, can also be purchaseo^t-very reasonable prices. 



8 UNITED SIATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

Medical Attendance. — At present medical attendance is fur- 
nished to employees in Manila without cost. A civil hospital has 
been established in Manila, to the wards of which civil-service 
employees are admitted at a uniform charge of $1 a day, with medi- 
cal and surgical attendance, medical supplies, nursing, and food 
included. Those who desire private rooms are required to pay from 
$10 to $20 a week. 

Cost of Living. — Those who live outside of Manila can live fairly 
well for $30 or less a month. In Manila the cost to employees is 
determined largely by the manner of living. Many who rent rooms 
and live in "messes" keep their living expenses in the neighborhood 
of $35 to $40- a month. The better hotels charge about $40 to $50 a 
month, while the best hotels are higher in their rates. A civil com- 
missary has been established, the advantages of which are available 
to civil-service employees in the provinces, but not in Manila. The 
large number of dwellings now being erected warrants the prediction 
of a material decrease in rents during the year. An electric street 
railway throughout the entire city of Manila is nearing completion. 
This will do away with the expense of cab transportation. It will 
also materially reduce rents by permitting the population to scatter 
over a wider area, and will make life pleasanter and cooler and cost 
of living cheaper. 

Leave of Absence, — After at least two years' continuous, faith- 
ful, and satisfactory service, the civil governor or proper head of a 
department shall, subject to the necessities of the public service, and 
upon proper application therefor, grant each regularly and perma- 
nently appointed officer ox employee in the civil service, insular or 
provincial, or of the city of Manila, except as hereinafter provided, 
accrued leave of absence with full pay, inclusive of Sundays and of 
days declared public holidays by law or Executive order, for each 
year of service in accordance with the following schedule: An em- 
ployee receiving an annual salary of less than $600 shall be granted 
twenty days' leave; an employee receiving an annual salary of from 
$600 to $900 with board and quarters, and an officer or employee re- 
ceiving an annual salary of $900 or more, but less than $1 800, shall 
be granted thirty days' leave; an officer or employee receiving an 
annual salary of $1 800 or more shall be granted thirty-five days' 
leave. Leave shall accrue while an officer or employee is on duly 
authorized leave of absence with pay. In addition to the leave men- 
tioned, an employee receiving less than $1 000 a year may be granted 
21 days' vacation leave, and an employee receiving $1 000 a year or 
more may be granted 28 days' vacation leave during each calendar 
year. This vacation leave is in lieu of any leave of absence on 
account of sickness. 

Transportation. — A person residing in the United States who 
is appointed to the Philippine civil service may pay his traveling 



UNITED STATES CTVIL SERVICE. 9 

expenses from the place of his residence in the United States to 
Manila: Pravided, That if any part of his traveling expenses is 
borne by the g-overnment of the Philippine Islands, 10 per cent, of 
his monthly salary shall be retained until the amount retained is 
equal to the amount borne by the government: And provided further. 
That if he shall come by the route and steamer directed, his actual 
and necessary traveling expenses shall be refunded to him at the 
expiration of two years' satisfactory service in the Philippines. 

He shall be allowed half salary from the date of embarkation and 
full salary from the date of his arrival in the islands : Provided, That 
he proceed directly to the islands ; otherwise he shall be allowed half 
salary for such time only as is ordinarily required to perform the 
journey by the route directed: And provided further, That such half 
salary shall not be paid until after the "expiration of two years of 
satisfactory service in the Philippines. 

A person residing in the United States accepting an appointment 
to a position in the civil service of the government of the Philippine 
Islands shall, before receiving such appointment, execute a contract 
and deliver it to the chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, War 
Department, wherein the appointee shall stipulate that he will 
remain in the service of the government of the Philippine Islands 
for at least two years, unless released by the civil governor or proper 
head of a department. A breach of the conditions provided in the 
contract or a removal for cause shall require the proper officer to 
withhold payment of all salary and traveling expenses due to the 
person employed and who has violated the conditions of his contract 
or been removed for cause, and shall debar such person from ever 
entering again the public service of the Philippine government in 
any of its branches. In such case an" action shall lie for the recovery 
of the amount expended by the Government in bringing the employee 
to the Philippine Islands. 

No arrangements have been made for holding examinations for 
ordinary clerical positions in the post-office, custom-house, and 
internal-revenue services and trades positions in the Philippines. 
Such positions are usually filled by the appointment of Filipinos. 
Application should be made to the Philippine civil-service board at 
Manila, P. I., for information concerning appointment to these 
positions. 



INFOKMATION CONCERNING CONDITIONS OF EMPLOY- 
MENT IN THE ISTHMIAN CANAL SERVICE. 

For the further information of applicants and others, the follow- 
ing statement is published relative to conditions of employment on 
the Isthmus of Panama under civil service rules by the Isthmian 
Canal Commission. 



10 ^ UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. 

General Conditions on the Isthmus of Panama. — Kepresenta- 
tives of the Civil Service Commissioii who have recently returned 
from Panama report that conditions have greatly improved on the 
Isthmus. The health of the employees is excellent. On April 11, 
1906, less than two per cent, of the American employees were on the 
sick list. While there have been some cases of yellow fever since 
the Amxcricans occupied the Isthmus, there has not been a single 
case since last November, which is due to the sanitary measures 
taken by the authorities. Substantial meals are furnished in the 
hotels erected for employees at 30 cents a meal, and comfortable 
quarters have been erected and are in course of erection for married 
men and their families and for bachelors. As higher salaries are 
paid than in the United States, it is practicable for employees to 
save a large proportion of their salaries. Employees on the Isthmus 
freely express their appreciation of the work done by the Govern- 
ment in providing for their material welfare, and there is a spirit 
of cooperation and contentment throughout the service. 

The winter months on the Isthmus are, as a rule, clear and 
pleasant. During this period the nights are cool, which is also true 
of the nights during the summer months. While there is continuous 
warm weather, the heat is not intense. The quarters provided for 
employees are in cool places near the seacoast, or on the higher ele- 
vations, and it is believed that Americans on the Isthmus suffer less 
from heat than they do during the summer months in many parts 
of the United States. 

Employees Whose Salaries are Fixed on a Monthly or Annual 
Basis. — The salaries of such employees begin upon the date of em- 
barkation at port of departure from the United States, but no pay- 
ment on account thereof shall be made until after thirty days' ser- 
vice on the Isthmus. They will be required to pay all expenses of 
the journey to the port of departure, which expenses will not be re- 
funded, but they will be granted free transportation from that port 
to the point of destination, which will include meals on the steamer. 
Where practicable and in the best interests of the service they will 
be provided with such quarters on the Isthmus as may be available 
from time to time, and if such quarters are not available they will be 
granted, in lieu thereof, a sum, payable monthly, equal to 15 per 
cent, of their monthly compensation. 

They may be granted, in the discretion of the head of the depart- 
ment in which employed, leave of absence at the rate of six weeks 
for every twelve months of service rendered, such leave to be cumu- 
lative for a period of two years and to be granted at any time after 
eight months' service in the discretion of the head of the department 
in which employed. If such leave i^ granted, they will be entitled 
to the Government rate of $20 each way on the steamers of the 
Panama Railroad and Steamship Company operating between New 



UNITED STATES CR'IL SERVICE. 11 

York and Colon. This grant of a leave of absence is not to be con- 
sidered a vested right, but is made to promote the welfare and in- 
terests of the service, and compensation for the period of their 
leave will not be paid until after their return to duty. 

In the event of illness an employee may be granted, upon the 
certificate of an authorized physician of the health department in 
the Canal Zone of his disability for work, sick leave with pay, in 
addition to such other leave of absence as may be granted to him, 
such sick leave with pay continuing during disability not to exceed 
thirty days in any calendar year for an employee appointed in the 
United States whose salary is fixed on a monthly or annual basis, 
and not to exceed fifteen days in any calendar year for an employee 
appointed on the Isthmus whose salary is fixed in like manner. Such 
leave of absence on account of illness shall not be cumulative. 

Employees whose salaries are fixed on a monthly or annual basis 
will receive no extra pay for overtime work required of them. 

Medical Attendance. — Free medical and hospital attendance in 
case of illness is provided. 

Return Transportation. — Free transportation is provided to a 
port of the United States upon the termination, by or at the instance 
of the Isthmian Canal Commission, of satisfactory service, the char- 
acter and length of such service to be determined by the head of 
the department in which employed. 

Transportation of Families. — Members of the immediate fami- 
lies of employees will, upon request, when the exigencies of the 
steamship service permit, be granted the Government rate of $20 
between New York and Colon. No charge will be made for children 
under 6 years of age, and half rates will be charged for children be- 
tween the ages of 6 and 12 years. Employees will not be permitted 
to take their families to the Isthmus until they have gone there first 
and secured quarters for them. 

Assignment of Duties. — The assignment of duties is vested in 
the head of the department in which employed, and employees are 
expected to perform such duties as may be assigned them by compe- 
tent authority. Services must be satisfactory to the head of such 
department. 

Each applicant for the Isthmian Canal Service will be required 
to submit to the examiner, on the day he is examined, a photograph 
of himself, taken within three years, which will be filed with his ex- 
amination papers as a means of identification in case he receives 
appointment. An unmounted photograph is preferred. The date, 
place, and kind of examination, the examination number, the com- 
petitor's name, and the year in which the photograph was taken 
should be indicated on the photograph. The medical certificate in 
the application is also required. 

No person will be appointed for service on the Isthmus who is 



12 UNITED STATES CWIL SERVICE. 

not physically sound and in good health. Persons examined for po- 
sitions on the Isthmus will not be eligible, as the result of such ex- 
amination, to positions in the United States or Philippine services. 
Persons appointed will be expected to proceed promptly to the 
Isthmus of Panama. 

Eligibles selected for appointment in this service will be subjected 
to rigid scrutiny and may be physically reexamined upon reaching 
the port of embarkation for the Isthmus, and will be rejected if the 
statements in the application are found to be false or incorrect in 
any essential particular. 



EATING OF EXAMINATION PAPEKS. 

Method of Eating. — The following method is observed in rating 
examination papers by the Commission : 

After an examination is held the papers are arranged by sheets 
or subjects and are forwarded under seal to the Commission. When 
they are reached in the order of rating, they are distributed by 
sheets to the examiners. Examiner A being given all of sheets 1, 
Examiner B all of sheets 2, Examiner C all of sheets 3, and so on, 
the sheets being distributed to as many examiners as there are sub- 
jects in the particular examination to be rated. After the papers 
are rated in the first instance they are redistributed, and the first 
rating is reviewed by other examiners. When all of the papers of an 
examination have been rated and reviewed, those of each competitor 
are then for the first time assembled or brought together, his average 
percentage is ascertained, his declaration envelope is opened, and 
the declaration sheet to which he has signed his name is attached to 
his examination papers. The identity of the competitor, therefore, 
is not disclosed until his papers have heen rated and reviewed and 
his average percentage determined. As the charges for specific errors 
are all fixed by the rules for rating, and as each subject is rated by 
one examiner and reviewed by another, it will be seen that absolute 
impartiality, accuracy, and uniformity are secured in the work. 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



AID, COAST AND GEODETIC SUEVEY. 

The position of deck officer will also be filled from this examina- 
tion. Age limit, 18 to 25 years; application form, 1312; time 
allowed, two days of six hours each. The first three subjects will 
be given on the first day and the remaining subjects on the second 
day. The medical certificate on the application form must be exe- 
cuted by a medical officer of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital 
Service, except when this requirement would work a hardship upon 
an applicant because of hiis distance from such officer he may have 
the certificate executed by any physician, in which event, however, 
he may be required to pass a physical examination before an office 
of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service before appoint- 
ment. Subjects of examination and relative weights of subjects 
on a scale of 100: Mathematics: Including geometry (plane and 
solid), algebra, trigonometry, and the elements of calculus, 15; Prac- 
tical computations: Involving the use of logarithmic tables, 15; 
Astronomy: Elementary questions in spherical and general astron- 
omy, with special reference to determination of latitude, longitude, 
and azimuth, and use of field instruments, 10; Physics: Elementary 
questions in optics, magnetism, etc., 10; Surveying: Elementary 
questions in plane and geodetic surveying, and use of field instru- 
ments, 10; Modern lang-uages: Competitors may select one of the 
following: French, German, Spanish, Italian. Extracts of about 
]00 words are given for translation into English, 10; Drawing and 
Descriptive Geometry: A short test in topographic drawing and let- 
tering is given with elementary questions on the principles of projec- 
tion, 10; Training and experience rated on application form, 20. 

The supply of eligibles for this position has not been equal ta 
the demand. 



AID, COAST AND GEODETIC SUEVEY. 

Mathematics. 

[Logarithmic tables will be furnished.] 

1. What angle does y^ of an inch subtend at a distance of 1 000 
ft.? 

2. State the sum of the interior angles of a closed plane figure 
bounded by straight lines. Give proof. 



14 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

3. Wliat is the differential of the sine of an arc? Show geomet- 
rically its signification, and, by a practical example, the use of 
the result. 

4. Compute all parts of a triangle having given angle A 33° 0' 
10'', angle B 45° 0' 20'', and side AB 1000 meters. 

5. Describe the difference between the orthographic, stereo- 
graphic, and different kinds of conic projections, and the advantages 
of each where they are employed. Explain generally the methods 
of descriptive, geometry, and illustrate by an example. 

Astronomy. 

1. State the different methods of determining latitude, longitude, 
and azimuth, and compare their relative accuracy. 

2. Give the adjustments of the transit instrument, and explain 
the method of making each. 

3. Derive the azimuth factor, and show how it is applied in the 
reduction of meridian observations. 

4. State approximately at what o'clock Alpha Lyrae (right ascen- 
sion 18h. 33m.) comes to the upper meridian on April 26, and give 
the reasoning. 

5. Can the southern cross, declination 62° south, be seen from the 
United States? Give the reasons for your answer. 

Physics. 

1. Name three processes by which heat is diffused. 

2. Wliat is the pressure in grams of the atmosphere on a square 
meter of the earth's surface at sea level, assuming the density of 
mercury to be 13.6 ? Give work in full. 

3. What is meant by the C. G. S. system of units ? 

4. The periods of vibration of two pendulums are as 2 to 3 ; what 
is the ratio of their lengths ? 

5. What is an achromatic lens ? What is an aplanatic lens ? 

6. Give a rough method of getting the magnifying power of the 
telescope of a surveyor's transit. 

7. What is meant by the index of refraction of a substance? 

8. Name the three elements of terrestrial magnetism which are 
usually determined by a magnetic survey. 



UNITED STATES CH^IL SERVICE. 15 

9. Define agonic line. 

10. What is meant by diurnal and what by secular variation of 
the magnetic needle ? 

Surveying. 

1. Mention one method by which the size and figure of the earth 
can be found, and another by which its figure can be deduced. 

2. Describe, briefly, two different kinds of apparatus suitable 
for measuring a base line. 

3. What is meant by the reduction to sea level of a measured 
distance, and why is such a correction applied ? 

4. What is meant by "spherical excess," and when is it necessary 
to take it into account? 

5. When does the sum of the azimuth and back azimuth of two 
intervisible stations differ from 180° ? 

6. A level has a scale value of 5 seconds to a millimeter; what is 
its approximate radius of curvature? 

7. What is meant by the adjustment for "wind" in a level? 

8. Represent a conical hill by six contour lines. 

Geography of the United States. 

1. Give the approximate geographical limits, by degrees of lati- 
tude and longitude, of the United States, and its approximate area. 

2. Name the States touched by the Mississippi River. 

3. Bound Illinois and Georgia. 

4. Name five of the principal rivers emptying into the Atlantic. 

5. Give the heights of the five highest mountain peaks in the 
United States, and their location, excluding Alaska. 

Modern Languages. 

Make a close translation of any two (and only two) of the follow- 
ing languages into idiomatic English : 

French. — Au lieu d'enfoncer le tube dans le mercure, on pent le 
soulever de maniere que son extremite inf erieure soit legerement au- 
dessus de la surface du mercure. Comme il ne se produit plus alors 
une fermenture hydraulique I'elevation du niveau est presque imper- 
ceptible. Si, dans cette position du tube, on place Fanode a son 
interieur, on constate naturellement un abaissement du niveau dont 



16 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

la valeur est plus forte que celle de la precedente elevation. Ce 
resultat est dii a la difference des dimensions du tube et du vase. 
Dans cette derniere experience, on pent evidemment remplacer le 
mercure par un metal solide; mais on remarque alors qu'il ne se 
produit aucune variation de niveau. 

German. — Entfernt man sich in der Aquatorebene mehr und mehr 
und mehr von der Erde, so nimmt die Anziehung ab, die Zentrifu- 
galkraft dagegen zu, bis endlich an einer Stelle GleicKheit eintritt. 
Dariiber hinaus iiberwiegt die Zentrifugalkraft. Man kann nun 
diejenige Niveauflache, in deren Aquator jene Gleichheit statt hat, 
als ausserste ]!^iveauflache bezeichnen, insof ern sie unter gewissen 
Voraussetzungen die Grenze der Atmosphare sein muss. Wir be- 
trachten hier iibrigens diese Flache nur zu dem Zwecke, um an 
einem Biespiel zu erkennen, v\;^ie sich die Niveauflachen bei gros- 
serem Abstande von der physischen Erdoberilache verandern. 

Spanish. — Si caen los cuerpos abandonados a si mismos, es en 
virtud de una fuerza atractiva que los dirige hacia el centro de la 
tierra, y no por su propia espontaneidad ; si disminuye gradualmente 
la velocidad de una bola en una mesa de billar, es por ef ecto de la 
resistancia del aire que desaloja, y por el roce sobre el tapete. Por 
consiguiente, de esto no debe deducirse que la bola tenga mas bien 
tendencia al reposo que al movimiento, segun decian algunos filosof os 
antiguos, que comparaban la materia con una persona perezosa. No 
habiendo resistencia, sigue sin alteracion el movimiento, como nos 
lo demuestran los astros en su revolucion al rededor del sol. 

Italian. — I fenomeni di attrazione e di repulsione notati, possono 
venire indicati schematicamente come ora diro. La fig. 2 rappresenta 
il caso in cui il filo A, visto in sezione, e unito metallicamente dal di 
fuori del tubo di scarica col catodo C. Sulla parete fluorescente si 
ha allora una zona M in ombra, la quale e molto piu larga delF altra 
mn che si avrebbe se A fosse neutro. I raggi catodici, che in questo 
caso sarebbero sensibilmente rettilinei, sono invece indicati in figura 
con delle linee di sensibilissima curvatura. 



UNITED STATES CIML SERVICE, 17 

ASSISTANT EXAMINEE, PATENT OFFICE, DEPAET- 
MENTAL SEEVICE. 

Age limit, 20 years or over; application forms, 30-1 and 375; time 
allowed, two days of seven hours each. The first three subjects will 
be given on the first day, the remaining subjects on the second day. 
Entrance salarj', $1 200. A credit not to exceed 15 per cent., and in 
no case to raise the competitor's grade above 100 per cent., will be 
given to competitors who have had actual experience in work similar 
to that required of assistant examiners in the Patent Office. 

Subjects. Weights. 

1. Physics 20 

2. Chemistry, inorganic and organic 20 

3. Mathematics 10 

4. Technics 20 

5. Mechanical drawings 20 

6. French or German (translations into English). 10 

Total 100 

The following questions and tests, which have been used, indi- 
cate the general character of the examination: 

Physics. 

1. A body whose mass is 10 grams, supported by a smooth plane 
inclined to the horizon at an angle of 30°, is connected by a cord 
passing over the head of the inclined plane to a body hanging verti- 
cally, whose mass is 20 grams. Determine the actual acceleration, 
and the tension of the string in dynes, {g == 980 cm. per sec. per 
sec. Give work in full.) 

2. (cr) Explain emission and absorption spectra. (&) What is the 
cause of the dark lines (Fraunhofer's lines) of the solar spectrum? 

3. Give the laws governing the transverse vibration of strings. 

4. (a.) State the effect of fusion on the volume of solids, and give 
examples. Q)) What is the effect of pressure on the fusing point? 

5. Describe and explain Wheatstone's bridge, giving diagram. 

Chemistry, Ixorgaxic axd Organic. 

1. State and illustrate the law of periodicity in the properties of 
elements. 

2. How may the molecular weight of a chemical compound that 
is volatile without decomposition be determined? Explain fully the 
fundamental principles involved. 



18 



UNITED STATES CR^IL SERVICE. 



3. Describe the preparation and properties of arsenic. Give a 
test for arsenic. 

4. Give the formula of alcohol, aldehyde, and acetic acid. What 
is the relation between these substances? 

5. Write the formula of olefiant gas. Of what is olefiant gas a 
principal constituent ? 



Mathematics. 
1. Factor 9 — x^ — 4:y^ -\- 12 x y and 64 x- — 19 x 2/ — 45 y 



(x + yy — z'^W 



2. Given ^ cc^ — (2/ + 2)^ = ^\ 1 ^^^ ^^^ values of x and y. 

{x-\-y'—z = 9) 

3. rind the equation M^hose roots are, 0, 3, — 1 db >y 5, and a. 

4. Prove that the figure formed by connecting the middle points 
of a trapezium, taken in order, is a parallelogram, and that its area 
is one-half the area of trapezium. 

5. Determine the number of regular poljdiedrons possible. 



Technics. 
Answer at least five of the following questions: 

1. Describe the manufacture of kerosene from crude oil. 

2. Describe the manufacture of matches. 

3. Describe a time lock. 

4. (a) What are meant by "eccentricity" and "angle of advance" 
as applied to valve gearing? (&) Describe an automatic steam gov- 
ernor which acts by varying these quantities. 

5. (a) Describe, and illustrate by diagrams, the windings in a 
series, a shunt, and a compound- wound dynamo, {h) State why the 
last form of winding is better adapted to yield a constant potential 
under varying loads than the first two forms. 

6. Describe the manufacture of water gas. How are the by- 
products separated? 

7. Describe the manufacture and galvanizing of iron wire. 

8. Describe the safety devices commonly emploj-ed on passenger 
elevators. 

9. Describe the manufacture of bicycle tubing. 



UNITED STATES CI\'IL SERVICE. 19 

10. Describe the construction of a polyphase motor, and explain 
its mode of operation. 

Mechanical Drawings. 

For this subject the competitor will be given photolithographic 
copies of drawings of some kind, or portions of machinery, and will 
be required to describe the construction and operation of the machine 
represented, naming the different views shown, and the mechanical 
powers that appear. (The competitor will be instructed as to the 
name or use of the machine.) 



French or German. 

The examination is identical in scope for each language, and 
provides one general and two technical exercises in each language, 
each of the exercises containing about 125 words. The competitor 
must select and make translations of any two of the exercises in the 
language chosen without the aid of a dictionary. 



20 UNITED STATES CWIL SERVICE. 

ASSISTANT, NAUTICAL ALMANAC OFFICE, NAVY 
DEPARTMENT. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application forms 304 and 375 ; time 
allowed, two days of seven hours each. As to applying for this 
examination see page 4. 



Subjects. Weights. 

1. Pure mathematics 50 

2. Practical computations 40 

3. Spherical astronomy 10 

Total 100 

The following questions, which have been used, indicate the gen- 
eral character of the subjects: 



Mathematics. 

1. Solve the following : 

(a) '£' — 5 -y/ 2a;2 — 3a; — 4 — x = — — ; 

\J X \ X ^ X 

2. Find the sum of (a) i — ^ + i — ^3^ + . . to infinity ; (6) If 
the middle term of (1 + cc)'" is the same as the {n + l)th term of 

1 

/ -, determine a. 

y 1 — ax 

3. (a) Prove the binomial theorem for positive integral exponents; 

1 

^^) ^^P^^^ \/ \a^^-hxy *^ ^ *^"^^^- 

4. Prove that a truncated triangular prism is equivalent to the 
sum of three pyramids whose common base is that of the prism and 
whose vertices are the 3 vertices of the inclined section. 

5. Deduce the formulae for the sine and cosine of half of any 
angle of a plane triangle in terms of the sides. 



6. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse 
-f -^ = 1 at point whose a 
also the length of subnormal. 



-^—- + -^ = 1 at point whose abscissa is 4 and ordinate positive. Find 
25 lo 



UNITED STATES CH'IL SERVICE. 21 

7. (a) Given y = (log sin cc)^^*' % find dy; (b) Show the geometrical 
signification of the first differential coefficient of the equation to a 
curve. 

8. Expand tan-^cc in ascending powers of x and determine the, 
value of TT to o places of decimals. 

9. (a) State Napier's Analysis and Gauss's Equations; (h) Find 
the intercept oi y -{- 4:x = 2 between 5x — y = 7 and y = 7x — 5. 

10. State De Moivre's Theorem and show how to determine 
thereby the roots of ar* + 4 = 0. 

(Generally 10 questions.) 

Spherical Astronomy. 

1. Define the following: Nadir, celestial sphere, azimuth, collima- 
tion, sidereal time, aberration, ecliptic. 

2. Classify eclipses and state briefly the cause of each. 

3. Explain the equation of time, and represent it by a curve. 

4. Give the reasons why observers on the earth have been able to 
see more than one-half of the moon's surface. 

5. Given Sx -^ 2y ^ 1, 2x -{- dy = — 1, and x — 2y = — 2; find 
the most probable value of x and y. 

(Generally 5 questions.) 

Logarithmic and Astronomical Calculations. 

1. In a plane triangle a = 6238.7, h = 2347.5, and C = 110° 32', 
determine A, B, and c. 

2. In a spherical triangle a = 40° 5'.4, I = 118° 22M, A = 29° 
42'. 6; determine c, B, and C. 

3. Given x ^ a sin (/5 + Cy)^ compute 6 values of x for 0=1, 
2, ... 6, when a =^ — 0.27163, ft = 143° 47'.7, y = 117° 53'.3 ; add 

4-1. c 1 1 1, 1 1. -P 1 a sin (/? + f ;k) sin 3 r 

the 6 values and check by formula, sum = ^^ — -. — = — 

•^ ' sm ^ y. 

4. Given p cos d cos a = X + cc ; p cos d sin a ^ Y -j- y, and p 
sin 5 = Z + z, where log x = 0.24332, log y = 9.88888'', log z — 
8.29369^, X=r 0:63451, Y = —0.23688, and Z = —0.00246 ; deter- 
mide /a, d, and a (p being positive). 

;|[()1.0792 

5. Given iV = — ^y^g- Compute values of JV f or D — 0.04 and 0.15 
(Generally 10 questions.) 



22 UNITED STATES CIVTL SERVICE. 

SUPEKINTENDENT OF CONSTRUCTION, SUPERVISING 
ARCHITECT'S OFFICE, TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of seven hours each. The first subject will be given on the 
first day and the remaining subjects on the second day. An appli- 
cant must have had at least five years of practical experience in 
building construction, either as a superintendent proper, contractor, 
architect, or engineer, and must establish this experience to the sat- 
isfaction of the Commission prior to being admitted to the examina- 
tion. Subjects of examination and relative weights of subjects on a 
scale of 100: materials and building construction, involving exten- 
sive knowledge of all materials employed in first-class buildings and 
of details of construction, 40; mathematics, comprising arithmetic, 
accounts, and elements of plane geometry and mensuration, 10; 
building supervision, tests in the form of business communications 
which require adaptability, a knowledge of the qualifications, 
necessary for this position and knowledge of the work gained by 
experience, 15; specifications, involving knowledge of the details of 
complete specifications for the various class.es of work required in 
first-class buildings, 10; training and experience (see sec. 30 for 
time of filing application), 25. The duties of the position require the 
appointee's continuous residence in the city where the building 
under his superintendence is being constructed; but, as the necessi- 
ties of the service require that superintendents of construction of 
public buildings shall serve in any part of the United States, they 
may be detailed from building to building as required. 

The following questions and tests which have been used indicate 
the general character of the examination : 

Materials and Construction. 

1. What are the requisites of first-class building brick, of best 
quality lime, and of best quality building sand ? 

2. What are the characteristics of good cement; what tests are 
necessary to determine its quality, and in what respects do Rosendale 
and Portland differ? 

3. (a) What is "dry rot" and how is it prevented in buildings? 

(b) What are the requirements of first-class yellow-pine lumber? 

(c) In what respects do cast iron, malleable iron, and steel differ? 

4. (a) What is quarry water, what is its effect on stone, and how 
is it gotten rid of? (h) Compute the number of cubic feet of well- 
rammed concrete to be obtained from the following materials : Three 
bbls. (packed) Portland cement, 11 bbls. sand, 9 bbls. gravel, and 15 
bbls. ordinary broken stone. (Show work in full.) 



UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. 23 

5. In foundations, what varions means are adopted to increase 
the bearing capacity of a yielding soil? 

6. (a) What precautions must be taken to insure good joints and 
bond in (1) brick masonry, (2) ashlar facing with brick backing? 
(h) Give a pen-and-ink sketch of section and plan of a fireplace, 
with hearth and trimmer arch, opening 2 ft. 6 in. high, 3 ft. wide, 
and 16 ft. deep. 

7. What is "slow-burning construction"? Give a neat pen-and- 
ink sketch of the post-and-girder connections and of the floor con- 
struction of a building of this type. 

8. Give pen-and-ink sketch of sections through head, sill, and 
jamb of a sliding-sash window frame; name the different parts, and 
specify the material for each part. 

9. Give neat pen-and-ink sketch of sections through a door jamb, 
and through the stile of a veneered door; name the difl'erent parts 
in each case, the materials for each part, and describe or show 
plainly by sketches the method of construction. 

10. Make a neat pen-and-ink sketch showing longitudinal section 
through string of an iron staircase with marble treads; also show a 
section of gallery casing in a fireproof building, the floor to be of 
marble. . 

Aritiojetic axd Mathematics. 

1. Extract the square root of 492,868.586116. 

2. A contractor agrees to complete a piece of work in 30 days, 
and puts 17 men to work on it, the working day being 8 hours. At 
the end of the loth working day 5 men quit work, and he flnds that 
only >; of the work has been done. How many extra men, provided 
the total force works hereafter 9 hours per day, will it be necessary 
for him to hire at once so that he may fulfill his contract ? 

Divide 5f by ^, multiply the quotient by 3.5468, and from the 
product subtract ^ of 13.76. 

4. The depth of a building lot is one foot less than double its 
frontage. If a strip 1 yd. wide be taken off all around, the area is 
diminished 210 sq. ft. WTiat is the area of the original lot in square 
feet ? 

5. The plan given shows excavation for house. General excava- 
tion is 6 ft. 9 in. deep and deep-area windows 4 ft. 8 in. deep. The 
ground is level. Find total excavation in cubic yards. 

6. The area of a circle is 272 sq. ft. Find its radius and circum- 
ference in feet and inches. 



24 UXITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

7. The axes of an ellipse are 4 and 6 in,, respectively. Show 
one method of constructing it graphically. 

8. A beam of uniform cross-section 25 ft. long and weighing 50 
lb. per ft. is placed on a rail. It has a load of 150 lb. at 2 ft. 
from one end and 400 lb. at 5 ft. from the other. If there is equili- 
brium, find position of supporting rail from each end of beam in 
feet and decimals of a foot. 

9. Given two circles of different radii, one of which lies either 
wholly or in part outside of the other, show, geometrically, how to 
draw a straight line tangent to both circles, 

10. From the given sketch calculate the strains on the jib and 
the chain of this crane. State whether tension or compression. 

BuiLDixG Supervision. 

1. (a) State what mental and moral qualities a successful super- 
intendent must possess. (&) State what technical qualifications he 
should possess. 

2. (a) How would vou check the stakes defining the lot on which 
a building is to be erected, under your superintendence, and how 
would you fix them for future reference? (h) What points would 
you attend to in the excavation for foundation ? 

3. (a) The foundation having been excavated to the depth speci- 
fied, how would you test its bearing capacity? (h) If its capacity 
did not come up to requirements of specification, what would you do ? 

4. If the nature of the soil is such that wooden piles must be 
used and have been specified, state fully what you would do, as a 
superintendent, from the time of arrival of the piles on the ground 
until they are driven in conformity to contract requirements. 

5. State what precautions you would -take in order to obtain the 
best quality of work and best results in foundation footings (a) of 
concrete, (b) of brick, and (c) of stone. 

6. In the superintendence of cut work, either in granite, sand- 
stone, or limestone, v/hat precautions would you take in order to 
obtain the specified standard (a) in material, (h) in the cutting and 
molding, and (c) in the setting of the .stone? 

7. If, in your opinion, the contractor is using material not up to 
specification, or the quality of the work done, through inefficiency 
of workmen or other cause, is not first-class; and, generally, when 
the work in any respect is not being conducted or performed accord- 



UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. 25 

ing to your interpretation of specification and contract, state, in 
detail, what course or courses you would pursue. 

8. State what general considerations should govern a superin- 
tendent's course of action in all matters relating to his work. 

Specifications. 

(a) Give the general heads for a specification for a small brick 
office building with fireproof floors and roof, (h) Give rough draft 
of specification for the brickwork, woodwork and ironwork for the 
same. 



26 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

DEAFTSMAIST, TOPOGEAPHIC. 

Age limit, 20 .years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of six hours each. Subjects of examination and relative 
weights of subjects on a scale of 100: Drawing, a specimen of topo- 
graphic drawing will be given for reproduction, in India ink, 35; 
Lettering, tests on short words and numbers in different styles of 
lettering, 35; Mathematics, comprising arithmetic, algebra to and 
including problems involving quadratics, plane and solid geometry, 
plane trigonometry, logarithms, mensuration and projections, 30. 

The supply of eligibles for this position has not been equal to the 
demand. 

Note. — Competitors who fail to attain an average rating of at 
least 70 in the subjects of drawing and lettering will not be eligible 
for appointment. IsTot more than four hours will be allowed on the 
second day for work on drawing and lettering. No submitted draw- 
ings will be accepted. Competitors who average 70 per cent, or over 
in the subjects of drawing and lettering may also have their names 
entered on the copyist topographic draftsman register, provided that 
they each file an application for copyist topographic draftsman in 
ample time for the examination. 



UNITED STATES CIML SERVICE. 27 

DEAFTSMAN, COPYIST TOPOGRAPHIC. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of six and four hours, respectively. Subjects, examination 
and relative weights of subjects on a scale of 100 ; Drawing, a speci- 
men of topographic drawing will be given for reproduction in India 
ink, 50; Lettering, tests of short words in different styles of letter- 
ing and numbers are given, 50. The tests in drawing and lettering 
are identical with those given in the topographic draftsman exami- 
nation. Competitors who take both examinations will take these 
test-s but once. No submitted drawings will be accepted. 

The following questions and tests which have been used indicate 
the general character of the subjects of geographic projections, geog- 
raphy, and mathematics: 

Geographic Projections. 

State fully and clearly the principles of polyconic projection, and 
describe in detail the process of constructing, by this projection, a 
map of that part of the United States and Canada lying between 
30° and 50° north latitude and 70° and 90° west longitude. The 
scale of the map is to be ^-wo't oo o • 

Geography. 

1. Name five States bordering on the Great Lakes and name an 
important river in each of the States required. 

2. Name five States which border on the Missouri River, and 
name the capital of each State required. 

3. In what State is each of the following-named located : Fremont 
Peak, Tulare Lake, Mount Mitchell, Schoodic Lakes, Mount Baker? 

4. Name the most populous city in each of the following-men- 
tioned States and the river or body of water on which each is situ- 
ated: Connecticut, West Virginia, North Dakota, Washington, 
Arkansas. 

5. Name two States which border on each of the following-men- 
tioned rivers or bodies of water: Potomac River, Lake Champlain, 
Savannah River, Columbia River, Sabine River. 

Mathematics. 

1. Same as question 1 of the arithmetic of first grade, see 
Sec. 35.* 

2. Divide 5f by 3^2, multiply the quotient by 3.5468, and from the 
product subtract ^ of 13.76. 

* See Manual of Examinations, U. S. Civil Service Commission. 



28 UNITED STATES CWIL SERVICE. 

3. Three draftsmen, Aj B, and C, are engaged upon a piece of 
work. A can do it alone in 7, B in 15, and G in 21 days. After the 
three men work together 1§ days B stops work. How long will it 
take A and C, working together, to complete the work?- 

4. Extract the square root of 94,254.526081. 

5. What size sheet of paper, in inches, would be required for a 
map covering one degree of latitude and longitude, on a scale of 
^^-Iqq, to allow a margin 1^ in. wide all around, outside the neat 
lines, if one minute of latitude is equal to 1,850 meters and one of 
longitude on the largest arc is equal to 1,356 meters ? 

6. Show how to draw a circle through three given points not on a 
straight line, and prove your construction. 

7. Find the point on a given straight line, such that the sum of 
the distances from it to two given points not on this line may be the 
least possible. 

r. ^. ^ — 5 2x — y — 1 2y — 2 

8. Given —, 1 = -^ — , and 

4 3 ' 

2v + a^ 1 X -{- y a J J 

^ =: — ^, find X and y. 

115 

9. Given x^y + xy^ = 20, and — -| = t^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ H- 

10. In a triangle ABC, the angles A and B and the side a are 
given. Write down the formulae for finding C, h, and c, and express 
the logarithms of these in terms of those of A, B, and a. 

No specimen questions in the fifth, sixth, and seventh subjects 
can be furnished. 



UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. 29 

DKAFTSMAN, AKCHITECTURAL, SUPERVISING ARCHI- 
TECT'S OFFICE. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of eight hours each. The first two subjects will be given 
on the first day and the third subject on the second day. Subjects 
of examination and relative weights of subjects on a scale of 100; 
Building materials and construction, involving extensive knowledge 
of all materials employed in first-class buildings, of details of con- 
struction, and of specification forms for such work, 25; free-hand 
drawing, ornament and projection, involving ability to make free- 
hand perspectives, large-scale free-hand drawings of styles of exterior 
and interior decoration and shadow casting, etc., 25; drawing and 
design, involving the drawing of plans, elevations, and details for 
modern first-class buildings to scale according to given specification, 
30; training and experience, 20. 

DRAFTSMAN, JUNIOR ARCHITECTURAL, SUPERVISING 
ARCHITECT'S OFFICE. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of seven hours each. The first two subjects will be given 
on the first day and the remaining subject on the second day. Sub- 
jects of examination and relative weights of subjects on a scale of 
100: Materials and building construction, elementary questions in 
materials and details of construction, 25; free-hand drawing and 
projection, elementary questions involving ability to draw perspec- 
tive views, plans, and elevations of regular solids, examples of deco- 
ration, cast shadows, etc., 25; drawing, involving ability to draw 
neatly and correctly to scale, sketch drawings submitted, 40 ; training 
and experience, 10. 

The following questions and tests which have been used will indi- 
cate the general character of the above-named examinations : 

(a) Janiar architectural draftsman. 

Elementary Mathematics. 

1. This question comprises a test in adding figures crosswise and 
lengthwise. There are usually three columns of about twelve num- 
bers each to be added. 

2. Multiply 382.58 by | of 27.342, and divide the product by i of 
34.78. (Work by decimals.) 

3. Extract the square root of 492,868.586116. 

4. Given a straight line of definite length, show how to divide it 
graphically into four parts proportional in length to the numbers 
1, 2, 3, and 5. 



30 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

5. Describe a circle through any three given points not in a 
straight line, and prove yonr construction. 

Knowledge of Materials and Construction. 

1. What are the characteristics of first-class building brick, best 
quality lime and building sand? 

2. N'ame four different bonds employed in brickwork. Make 
neat pen-and-ink sketch plans and elevations of each. 

3. Explain or show by sketch the best method of framing studs 
and joists on sills, and make, also, a neat sketch section through the 
sill and the stone foundation of a frame house. 

4. Make a sketch section and elevation in ink, showing the con- 
struction of an ordinary panel door; name all the parts. Draw a 
sketch about one-sixth full size, showing section through a veneered 
door. 

5. Show by a sketch the method of framing a floor around a 
chimney in an outside brick wall, and name the different parts of the 
framing. 

Orthographic Projection and Free-Hand Draaving. 

A right regular triangular prism, whose height is 21 in., and 
the edge of whose ends is 1^ in., stands on one end as a base, 
with two edges of base equally inclined to- the vertical plane. The 
center of the base is li in. from the vertical plane. 

1. Draw plan and elevation, and show true form of section made 
by a. cutting plane at right angles to the vertical plane, at 45° to the 
horizontal plane, and bisecting the axis of the prism. 

2. Draw the development of the lower part of the prism. 

3. Make free-hand drawing in pencil of sketch of ornament fur- 
nished, enlarging to twice the size there shown. 

4. Make free-hand drawing in ink of the study for house, enlarg- 
ing to twice the size there shown. 

Architectural Drawing. 

1. Name the five orders of architecture and the principal parts 
into which an order is divided. 

2. Draw, in pencil, a Eoman Doric cap, using 2 in. as a module. 

8. The plan given on sheet 5a is to ^V^^- scale. Enlarge to xV'i^* 
scale and finish in pencil. 



UNITED STATES CIVlh SERVICE. 31 

4. Make a copy of the elevation given on the same sheet, in 
pencil. Use the same scale as in copy. Finish one bay complete. 

5. Make a tracing, in ink, of yonr drawing furnished in answer 
to 4. 

Note. — The drawing given in connection with questions 3, 4, and 
5 will be a simple plan and elevation of a small public building. 

(b) Architectural draftsman. 

KXOAVLEDGE OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

1. Give, to about 1-in. scale, a sketch plan and section of a fire- 
place with hearth and trimmer arch, the opening to be 2 ft. 6 in. 
high, 3 ft. wide, and 16 in. deep. 

2. Give two sketch plans of a brick pier between two windows, 
faced with ashlar, showing the bond of the ashlar and the anchors 
and cramps required to bond the work. 

3. Wliat is "slow-burning construction"? Give a pen-and-ink 
sketch of the post and girder connections and of the floor construc- 
tion in a building of this type. 

4. Of what materials are (1) concrete, (2) lime mortar, (3) 
cement mortar, (4) first coat of plaster composed; in what way is 
each used, and in what proportions are the materials mixed in each 
case ? 

5. What are the characteristics of good common brick and good 
building sand, and what tests would you employ to ascertain their 
quality? In what respects do Rosendale' and Portland cements 
differ? 

6. Give sections through the head, sill, and jamb of a sliding-sash 
window frame, name the different parts, and specify the material 
of which er.ch i)art should be made. 

7. What are the characteristics of first-class yellow-pine lumber? 
Define wet-rot and dry-rot, and state how each is prevented. 

8. How would you specify a joint to be made between (a) cast- 
iron pipes and (h) between a cast-iron pipe and a lead one? What 
minimum fall would you allow in a sewer from house to street? 

9. Show, by a neat pen-and-ink sketch, the proper method of 
arranging a ventilated running trap outside the wall of a building 
and on the line of pipe connecting the sewer. 

10. Make a neat pen-and-ink sketch showing longitudinal section 
through string of an iron staircase with marble treads; also show a 



32 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

section of gallery easing in a fireproof building, the floor to be of 
marble. 

The drawings required to be made under instructions given above 
represent elevation and first-floor plan of a federal building. Stone 
facing. Fireproof construction. 

1. Give the* headings of the principal subjects to be covered in a 
specification for such a building. 

2. Give a short outline draft of a specification for the cut-stone 
work. 

3. A short outline draft for the brickwork. 

4. A short outline draft for the carpenter work. 

5. A short outline draft for the painting and glazing. 

Drawing and Design. 

1. Name and describe in outline the Greek and Roman orders, 
mentioning the principal points in which they differ. 

2. Draw, in pencil, with a module of i in,, the Corinthian order, 
and give the proper technical name for each of its parts and mem- 
bers. 

3. Lay out, in pencil, to l-in. scale, the sketch plan shown on 
sheet 4a, and figure your drawing fully. 

4. Lay out the elevation, in pencil, to the same scale, finish one- 
half of your drawing, and figure the openings. 

5. Make a tracing in ink, on linen, of your drawings in answer to 
questions 3 and 4, and letter the tracing neatly. 

For questions 3, 4, and 5 a rough sketch plan and elevation of a 
public building was given. 

Free-hand Drawing and Orthographic Projection. 

Give finished pencil sketches of two of the following-named styles 
of ornament, and indicate your selection : 

1. Greek or Roman. (Select one.) 

2. Gothic or Renaissance. (Select one.) 

3. A right, regular octagonal prism, whose height is 3 in. and the 
edge of whose ends is 1 in., stands on an edge of one end on the 
horizontal plane, with its axis parallel to the vertical plane, at 60° 
to the horizontal plane and 1| in. from the latter. The edge on a 



UNITED STATES CWIL SERVICE. 



33 



horizontal plane is inclined at 60° to the vertical plane. Draw plan 
and elevation. 

4. Show true form of section made by a horizontal cutting plane 
which bisects the axis, and develop the lower part of the prism. 

5. An octagonal column, 3 in. high, and the diagonals of whose 
base are 2-1 in., stands vertical and has a plinth 4 in. square and 1 
in. thick lying flat on top. One face of the plinth and one of the 
column show full in elevation. Show exact form of shadow cast by 
plinth on column by a direct light falling at 45°, as is usual in 
drawings. 

(c) Structural-steel draftsman. 

Higher Mathematics and Mechanics. 

6. Assuming the formula for determining the solidity of a cone 
as proved, show that the volumes of two similar cones of revolution 
are to each other as the cubes of their heights. 

7. Given two adjacent sides, a and h, of a triangle, and also the 
included angle C, show how to solve the triangle. 

8. Find the points where the straight line y = ^x -\- a cuts the 
parabola 2/^ = 4aa;, and the length of the part intercepted. 

9. Given x^ -\- 1/ — ^axy = c; find -y-- 

10. Integrate -^ — - — , — ~dx. 

° x^ — 6cc + 8 

11. A 20-in. I-beam, 70 lb. per ft., has an 8 by i-in. plate riveted 
on the bottom flange. Find the position of the center of gravity, the 
moment of inertia, and the radius of gyration of the combined sec- 
tion. (Moment of inertia for 20-in. I-beam 70 lb. per ft. = 1220.) 

' 12. A steel plate girder 30 ft. long and 3 ft. deep carries a center 
load of 30 000 lb. and a distributed load of 2 000 lb. per ft. If the 
maximum strain on extreme fibers is 15 000 lb. what is the moment 
of inertia of the section? 

13. A beam 2-5 ft. long has a load of 10 000 lb. at 5 ft. from one 
end and a distributed load of 1 000 lb. per foot. What is the maxi- 
mum bending moment, and where does it occur ? 

14. State the theorem of (a) the parallelogram of forces; (h) 
the parallelopiped of forces, and (c) the resultant of any number of 
parallel forces. 



34 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

15. Three forces. A, B, and C, are in equilibrium. Having given 
the magnitude and direction of A, the magnitude of B, and the 
direction of C, determine the magnitude of C and the direction of B. 
When is the solution impossible? 

Knowledge of Materials, Drawing and Design. 
(Use of slide-rule is permitted in computations.) 

1. Figure the strains on the members of the truss shown below. 
Assume wind pressure as 40 lb. per sq. ft. horizontal; snow, roof, 
and covering as 40 lb. per horizontal sq. ft. Truss is fixed at A and 
rests on steel built column 20 ft. high; free at B, resting on rollers 
on brick wall. Distance between trusses is 10 ft. To prevent bend- 
ing of column a knee brace is to be provided. Distance from foot 
of column to knee brace is 12 ft. Show all your calculations. (A 
Fink roof truss, 100 ft. span and 25 ft. rise, was given.) 

2. Show, in pencil, details at A and B, and of foundation of 
column, so that maximum pressure on subsoil may not exceed 1 000 
lb. per sq. ft. Find, also, strain in knee brace and bending moment 
en column. 

3. (a) Describe briefly the process to which ore is subjected 
before it is suitable for structural cast-iron work. (&) Name and 
describe, in detail, one method of making steel. 

A. A floor space, 25 by 40 ft. clear, is to be covered with a steel 
beam and girder floor without columns. The total floor load, includ- 
ing weight of floor, is 400 lb. per sq. ft. Allowing maximum strain 
en fibers of 15 000 lb. per sq. in., show by a neat pen-and-ink figured 
sketch the most economical and suitable arrangement. Add written 
notes when necessary. The moment of inertia of 10-in. I-beam 25 
lb. per ft. is equal to 122.5; 10-in. I-beam 33 lb. per ft. is equal 
,to 161.3; 12-in. I-beam 32 lb. per ft. is equal to 222.3; 12-in. I-beam 
40 lb. per ft. is equal to 281.3 ; 15-in. I-beam 41 lb. per ft. is equal to 
424.1; 15-in. I-beam 50 lb. per ft. is equal to 529.7; 15-in. I-beam 60 
lb. per ft. is equal to 644; 15-in. I-beam 80 lb. per ft. is equal to 785. 

5. A plate girder 27 ft. long and 3 ft. deep carries a load of 3 000 
lb. per ft. and a concentrated load of 50 000 lb. at 6 ft. from each 
end. Proportion the girder to sustain this total load, allowing maxi- 
mum flange strain of 15 000 lb. per sq. in., and shear in web and 
rivets of 8 000 lb. Show all your calculations. 

6. Make detail drawings, in pencil, of the girder to |-in. scale. 
Figure all dimensions and rivet spacing. 

7. A column carries, at first floor level, four beams. The beams 
are arranged and transmit to the column the loads as shown on the 



II 



UNITED STATES CR'IL SERVICE. 



35 



sketch below. Length of column is 13 ft. from base to top of beam 
at first floor and 25 ft. from top of beam at first floor to top of beam 
at second floor. The column rests on a concrete base and is to be 
built of plates and angles. Design the column and all connections. 
Assume strain on column as 10 000 lb. per sq. in., shearing value 
|-in. rivets as 6 000 lb., and bearing value of |-in. rivets as 15 000 
lb. per lin. in. of bearing. Allow pressure on concrete base of 
8 tons per sq. ft. Show all your calculations. 

8. Make a drawing, in pencil, of the column, showing all connec- 
tions and base. 

Note. — For question 7 the column carries, at first-floor level, four 
beams at right angles, in pairs, and unequally loaded ; at second-floor 
level three beams, unequally loaded and at 120° to each other, are 
carried. 

(d) Heating and ventilating- draftsman. — First subject same as 
in junior architectural draftsman. 

Practical Knowledge of Heating and Ventilation. 

1. Name the various means employed for warming buildings and 
briefly describe the principal systems. 

2. Describe the construction of the usual style of direct radiators 
used for direct hot-water heating. 

3. State the difference between direct steam radiators and those 
used for direct hot-water heating. 

4. Where should automatic air-valve be located on a direct steam 
radiator, and also on an indirect steam radiator? 

5. (a) How should flow and return pipes of a low pressure steam 
heating apparatus be graded? (h) How should similar pipes of a 
low temperature hot-water heating apparatus be graded? (c) How 
is air expelled from a hot-water heating system ? 

6. Explain the use of eccentric fittings in the pipe system of a 
st^am-heating apparatus. 

7. What is the relative position of outlets of a 6 by 4 by 2-in. 
eccentric "T" placed in the main flow pipe of (a) a low-pressure 
steam-heating apparatus, and (b) a low-temperature hot-water-heat- 
ing apparatus? 

8. State how globe-valves should be placed on horizontal steam- 
flow pipes. 

9. Explain the use and operation of automatic air-valves on 
steam radiators. 



6b UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

10. To warm and ventilate a building it is necessary to introduce 
570 000 cu. ft. of fresh air per hour, which amount of air is to be 
heated from plus 20° to 110° Fahr. by indirect radiation. The indi- 
rect radiation to be used will emit 470 h. u. per sq. ft. per hour. How 
many square feet of indirect radiation will be required. 

Drawing and Design. 

1. (a) Illustrate by free-hand sketch how drip pipe from a ver- 
tical steam-flow riser is run and connected to the corresponding 
return riser, both flow and return risers being valved. (h) Make a 
free-hand section of a 2-in. globe valve. Sketch to be made approxi- 
mately full size and clearly show construction of valve. 

2. Draw three-fourths-inch scale section of an indirect radiator 
of a low-pressure steam-heating apparatus, located in a brick cham- 
ber in the basement of a building. The indirect radiator to be 
located and shown in outline only; but connections to same, includ- 
ing valves, cold-air supply duct with damper, hot-air exit flue, con- 
struction of ceiling of chamber, manholes, etc., must all be fully 
illustrated. Drawing to be clear and distinct and to be made in 
pencil only. 

3. Make finished ink drawing, side and end elevations and section 
through trench and part section of wrought-iron blow-ofl tank and 
pipe connections to same, all as illustrated by sketch furnished. End 
elevation to be taken from line a h, scale to be f in. to 1 ft. 

(e) Electrical engineer and draftsman. — First subject same as in 
junior architectural draftsman. Specimen questions in second and 
third subjects can not be furnished at this time. 

CIVIL ENGINEEE, DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE. 

Age limit, 20 years or over; application form, 1312; time allowed, 
two days of six and three hours, respectively. The first two subjects 
will be given on the first day and the third subject on the second 
day. Subjects of examination and relative weights of subjects on a 
scale of 100: Pure and applied mathematics, elementary problems 
in mensuration, solution of plane triangles, and theoretical and 
applied mechanics, involving a fair knowledge of pure mathematics 
to and including calculus, 20; use and construction of instruments, 
and surveying, comprising transit, including stadia work, level, plane 
table, rod, chain, tape, current meters, etc., surveying, leveling, and 
ether field work required in civil engineering and not covered in 
subject 1, 30; design and construction, involving elementary knowl- 
edge of designing and constructing highways, railroads, dams, re- 
taining walls, foundation work, trusses, etc., 25; training and expe- 
rience (see Sec. 30 for time of filing application), 25. 



UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 



37 



Note. — No applicant who has not had at least five years' good 
experience in civil engineering v^^ork v^ill be admitted to the exami- 
nation. Graduation in civil engineering from any reputable techni- 
cal school will be considered equivalent to three and one-half years 
of this period. Students of civil engineering about to graduate or 
just graduated, and others who have filled minor positions such as 
chainmen, rodmen, levelmen, etc., and who have not received a suit- 
able technical training, are advised to apply for subordinate posi- 
tions under the Engineer Department in their locality. 

CIVIL ENGINEEK, PHILIPPINE SERVICE. 

Age limit, 18 to 40 years; application forms, 2, including medi- 
cal certificate, and 375. For description of examination see Sec. 65. 
Eor further requirements see Sec. 35. 

Appointments will be made at salaries ranging from $1 400 to 
$1 800, depending upon the rating received in the examination and 
the am.ount of practical experience gained subsequent to graduation. 
Under the provisions of Section 21 of the Philippine civil service act, 
the higher positions are filled by promotion, without examination, of 
persons in the classified service who are, in the judgment of the 
appointing power, available and possess the qualifications required. 
There are at present about eighty civil engineer positions in the 
Philippine service, ranging from $1 200 to $5 400 per annum. Of 
this number nine receive $3 000 per annum or more. 

CIVIL ENGINEER AND DRAFTSMAN. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of six and seven hours, respectively. The test in civil 
engineering will occupy the two days and will be identical with the 
civil engineer examination, so that those who intend to qualify as 
draftsmen will take this test but once. The test in drawing will be 
given on completion of the civil engineer examination. No sub- 
mitted drawings will be accepted. 

All eligibles in the civil engineering subjects who receive a 
rating of not less than 70 per cent, on the drawing test will be 
eligible as civil engineers and draftsmen. Those who fail to receive 
a grade of 70 per cent, on the drawing will be eligible as civil engi- 
neers only. In determining the average percentage, the subjects of 
the civil engineer examination will be given a weight of 60 and the 
subject of drawing 40. 

CIVIL ENGINEER AND SUPERINTENDENT OF CON- 
STRUCTION. 

Age limit, 20 years or over ; application form, 1312 ; time allowed, 
two days of seven hours each. First day, subject 1, and subject 2 
begim; second day, subject 2 finished and subject 3. Subjects of 



38 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

examination and relative weights of subjects on a scale of 100: 
Mathematics, elementary problems in mensuration, solution of plane 
triangles, and theoretical and applied mechanics, involving a fair 
knowledge of pure mathematics up to and including calculus, 15; 
theory and practice of surveying and use and care of instruments, 
comprising transit, including stadia work, level, plane table, rods, 
chain, tape, etc., surveying, leveling, and other field work required 
in civil engineering, 30; building construction, specifications, etc., 
involving good knowledge of all materials employed in first-class 
buildings and of details of construction and of specifications, 30; 
training and experience. 

lERIGATION ENGINEEE, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

Age limit, 20 years or over; application form, 1312; time al- 
lowed, two days of seven consecutive hours each. The medical 
certificate in application form 1312 will be required, and those who 
are not physically sound and able to perform field duty under trying 
conditions will not be admitted to the examination. The first three 
subjects are given on the first day, the remaining subjects on the 
second day. 

Subjects of examination and relative weights of subjects on a 
scale of 100: Mathematics, pure and applied; algebra, including 
problems involving quadratics; plane and solid geometry; plane 
trigonometry, and elementary problems in applied mechanics, 10; 
topographic and construction sketching and lettering, competitor 
must show ability to make intelligible drawings of engineering and 
topographic features, 10; general surveying, topographic, hydro- 
graphic, and United States, theory and practice as covered in 
Manual of General Land Office and first-class surveying text-books, 
15; engineering and hydrographic construction, questions to illus- 
trate the general practice used on works both on land and in water, 
including strength of materials and specifications for the same, 20; 
discussion of engineering and hydrographic data,. the preparation of 
brief papers on various practical hydrographic problems connected 
with irrigation, power, water supply, samitary engineering, etc., 15; 
training and experience. 

Erom the eligible list obtained from this examination vacancies 
occurring in the various grades of the Engineering and Hydro- 
graphic Corps will be filled, including positions of assistant engineer 
and of hydrographer. The salaries range from $1 000 to $2 000 and 
upward. Subsistence and traveling expenses are paid when on field 
duty. The salaries will depend upon the experience of the com- 
petitors. 



UNITED STATES CIA'IL SERVICE. 



39 



ENGINEEK INSPECTOE. 

Technical. 

^' 1. State all the ways in which you would examine the notes of a 
closed survey to test its accuracy, both as to angular and linear 
measurements. ^ 

"^2. What is the fundamental requirement in all foundations to 
insure equality of settlement in all parts? 

-^3. (a) What points have to he considered in determining the 
bearing power of piles in any given case? (h) State the circum- 
stances, if any, where other than vertical force must be considered. 

4. Aside from construction and the wearing surface of streets 
and roads, what important considerations govern the design and 
execution of such works to insure permanency and freedom from 
unevenness in wear? 

5. Suppose you were ordered to make hydrographic survey for 
several piers on the North River side of the city; state clearly how 
you would lay out the work, what you would do and how you would 
do it. Illustrate by sketches, if you so desire. 

-^6. (a) Describe the method of making a survey of a reservoir 
site, (h) State clearly the method of computing the cubical con- 
tents of such reservoir to the flow line. 

^ 7. Bearing and length of tangents given, (a) show how you would 
lay out a simple railroad curve by use of transit instrument, (h) 
Show at least one way of doing the same by use of chain or tape 
only. 

-w' 8. A culvert to care for certain surface drainage is to be built 
under a road; show how you would determine the necessary site. 

->^ 9. Describe the proper construction of a weir for measuring the 
flow of water, and the precautions to be observed in its use. 

10. Suppose the upper surface of a dam to be vertical; (a) state 
at what depth the center of pressure of the water could be located. 
(h) State what the pressure per foot of length of the dam would be, 
taking the depth as (a). 

^ 11. What other ways are there for measuring the flow of water 
than by the use of weirs ? 

12. (a) Describe the action of the internal forces in a beam 
under transverse load, (h) Give the relation between a central load 
(P) and the unit strain (S) on a beam of length (I), depth (h) and 
width (w). 



40 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 

13. Describe what is meant by the term "shear" in computing the 
strength of bridges and how it is determined. 

- 14. In riveted work the bearing value and the shearing value 
have both to be considered, (a) Describe the cases in which each 
may be the governing element in computing the strength of the 
work, (h) About what values would you take for each? 

15. Why is it desirable that the center of pressure in masonry 
(as in the keystone of an arch) or in a foundation (as that of a re- 
taining wall) should not lie outside of the middle third of the joint? 
Is such condition necessarily fatal to the work? 

Mathematics. 

(Note: Show every figure.) 

1. Compute the number of square feet of pavement in a street 
50 ft. between curbs and on a curve of 75° with a radius of center 
line of 500 ft. 

•i-2. A rectangular field is 60 ft. long and 40 ft. wide, and is 
surrounded by a road of uniform width, having an area equal to 
that of the field ; what is the width of the road ? 

-/. 3. The population of the upper and lower parts of a town were 
equal, and after the former had fallen 20 per cent, and the latter 
risen 15 per cent., the total number of inhabitants was 39,390. 
What was the population of each part at first ? 

i 4. Extract the square root of 100.0200013. 

u^ 5. Subtract the sum a — x — a — x — (2x — 4) and a — x — 
ax — (a — 2x) from 2a — x. 

Eeports. 

Write a report on a new street of considerable length in one of 
the annexed districts. Begin with the original survey, followed by 
the location, adoption of grades (with reasons for all conclusions), 
a schedule of quantity to be used in letting of the work, and inspec- 
tion of grading, and of paving with granite block pavement. 



UNITED STATES CRTL SERVICE. " 41 

CIVIL ENGINEER AND SUPERINTENDENT OF CON- 
STRUCTION. 

1. A road is to be built 25 ft. wide. State how to calculate cut 
and fill, and how to establish grade line embankment 11 to 1 ft. 

2. Two guy ropes 15 ft. in plan. Figure out all stresses on 
various parts, jib, two guy ropes and chain. Name nature of 
stresses. Graphic method preferred. 

3. If you have the use of a transit for field work and same is in 
perfect condition, state in detail how you would proceed to keep it in 
its parts and as a whole in that condition. 

4. (a) State clearly the principle on which stadia measurements 
are based, (h) Explain and illustrate by large sketch the reading of 
the vernier, (c) Describe in detail the construction of a plane table. 

5. If a line is to be run and chained across a stream with high 
shore and chaining is impossible, state in detail how to obtain the 
distance, the line crossing the stream at an agle of 65 degrees. 

6. If a line of levels contains an error, state how to correct it, 
if corrections can be made at all. 

7. State three different methods of surveying and discuss their 
respective methods. 

8. When is it necessary to use piles for foundations? What is 
sometimes used instead of piles? Do pile foundations give entirely 
satisfactory results? How is the bearing capacity of piles com- 
puted ? 

9. Show by neat pen-and-ink sketch two different sections through 
ceiling and roof of a first-class fire-proof building. 

10. Show three courses of bond, English, Flemish and American, 
on corner of 2J ft. brick wall. 

11. Show by sketch how a sewer-pipe connecting house with 
main sewer is trapped and ventilated. 

12. Show base and elevation of a Z-bar column. 

13. Write specification for concrete work. 

14. Show by neat pen-and-ink sketch how pressed brick are 
bonded into rough brickwork. 

15. Show by sketch a section about full size of a bar of copper 
skylight. 

16. Show connections of three different sizes of I-beams. 

17. Test in drawing and lettering. 



42 



UNITED STATES CI\'IL SERVICE. 



Knowledge of Materials and Construction. 

1. Of what materials are concrete, lime mortar, and first coat of 
plaster composed, in what way is each used, and in what propor- 
tions are they mixed? 

2. What are the characteristics of good common brick, and good 
building sand, and what tests would you employ to ascertain their 
quality ? 

3. (a) In what respects do Kosendale and Portland cements 
differ? (h) What are the characteristics of first-class pine lumber? 

4. Define and illustrate the following terms: (a) !N"eedles; (b) 
Grout; (c) Fire Stops; (d) Templets; (e) Beds and builds; if) 
Chases; (g) Bush hammered; (h) Staggered; (i) Crandalled; (;) 
Briquettes. 

5. Give a plan and elevation of the floor framing around a 
chimney in an outside brick wall, and name the different parts. 

6. Describe two different ways of securing ashlar facing to 
backing. 

7. Give a section through a door jamb and through the style of 
veneered door. Name the different parts and materials for each. 

8. (a) How would you specify joints to be made (1) between 
cast-iron pipes and (2) between a lead pipe and an iron one? (h) 
What is the least fall per foot that you would specify for a sewer 
from house to house. 

9. Give sections through the head, sill and jamb of a sliding sash 
window-frame, in a brick wall, name the different parts, and specify 
the materials for each part. 

10. Name four different bonds employed in brickwork. Make 
neat pen-and-ink sketch, plans and elevations of each. 

Specifications. 

For this subject the competitor will be given four drawings of 
the elevations and plans of a federal building and will be required 
to write a preliminary block specification, sufficiently detailed to 
enable a contractor to make a preliminary estimate. 

Computing Quantities. 

1. From the elevations and plans of the federal building given 
under the subject "specifications," take out the quantities of the 
brickwork. 



UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. 



43 



2. From the same drawings, take out the quantities of the stone- 
work. 

3. Calculate the quantity of" lumber (board measure) in the 
frame of the sides, floor, and roof of a framed structure of the 
following dimensions : 28 by 20 ft. ; 12 ft. from top of sill plate to 
under side of cap plate; roof, 3- pitch and placed longitudinally of 
building; sill, 4 by 8 in.; floor joists, 3 by 12 in., spaced 16 in. on 
centers; vertical studs, 3 by 4 in., spaced 16 in. on centers; corner 
studs, 4 by 4 in. ; cap plates, 2 by 4 in. ; rafters, 2 by 6 in., 16 in. on 
centers; ridge piece, 2 by 8 in. 

4. (a) Calculate the weight, in pounds, of a C. I. column of the 
following dimensions: Length of shaft, 16 ft.; outside diameter, 15 
in.; thickness of metal in shaft, 1^ in. At each end is a circular 
flange 1 in. thick and projecting 3 in. beyond outside diameter of 
column. There are four stiffening ribs at each flange 1 in. thick 
and 3 in. deep, (h) Calculate the weight, in pounds, of a steel 
girder 30 ft. long; total depth at center, 3 ft. 44 in.; flanges, each 
15 by 1 in., with additional plate, 15 ft. by 15 in. by 1 in.; web, i 
in.; angle irons, 4^ by 4i by f in.; rivets, | in., and 3-in. pitch 
throughout. Omit joint covers in estimation. 

For questions 1 and 2, two plans and elevations of a small post- 
office building will be given. 



44 



UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 



EXAMINATION FOR ASSISTANT CIVIL ENGINEERS, 
PANAMA CANAL, JAN. 30 AND 31, 1905. 

Relative v^eights: 

Mathematics 20 

Instruments 10 

Surveying 10 

Design and construction 20 

Training and experience 40 



100 

Two days of 7 consecutive hours each. First day, Mathematics 

and Instruments; second day, Surveying, Design and Construction. 

Mathematics. — Answer 3 and only 3 of the following: 

1. Given the beam in sketch under a distributed load of 150 lb. 

per ft., with dead load of 30 lb. per ft. (linear) and carrying two 

concentrated loads as indicated: 



8,000 lbs. 

^^'"4 



I,000lb5. 
24' 0-- >j<4'^J&?j 



|< SO 'o"-- ^-iV-'A 

Support dupport- 

(a) Construct shear diagram. 

(Z)) Find point of maximum moment and amount of same. 

(c) Assuming width of 6 in., section rectangular, and maximum 
allowable fiber stress of 800 lb. per sq. in., what should be the depth 
of beam? 

(c?) What would be the maximum horizontal shear? (Answer 
any three parts of this question.) 

2. (a) A ladder 30 ft. long leans against a wall. The ladder 
weighs 50 lb. A man weighing 150 lb. and carrying 75 lb. weight 
is J, way up the ladder. Find reactions of ladder when (1st) it is 
hinged at top and (2) when it leans against the wall and friction 
with wall is zero. (Height of ladder top not given by candidate — 
overlooked probably.) 

(?)) In the pin-connected truss, sketched, find the amount of 
reaction at "C," amount and direction at "i?" for equilibrium and 
find stress in each member. 




UNITED STATES CB'IL SERVICE. 



45 



3. In the figure given B D = 42 ft. 
' E D = 28Q " 

L. D = 15° 
/^ E = 82° 
Find length of frontages B C, C D,E F, and F A to hundredths 
of a foot when area A B C F is twice as large as area C D E F. 
Four-place logs, were supplied. 



236 ft. 




4. Given (see sketch) D C = 1200 ft. and azimuth oi D C = 
188° 40'; az. oi D A = 97° 16'; az. oi D B = 130° 04'; az. A = 
30° 23'; az. B C -== Y6° 10'; find the length and azimuth of A B. 

(Origin and rotation of azimuth not stated; evidently to be de- 
termined from sketch.) 




5. The sketched figure representing a cross-section of a channel, 
(a) Find discharge when running full if C = 120 (in formula) 
and slope is 3 ft. per mile. 




{h) Find size of rectangular section for equivalent discharge if 
height is i- of base (running full). 

(c) If a canal lock gate has 12 ft. of water on one side and 4.2 
ft. on the other, what is the pressure on the gate (effective) ; where 
is the center of pressure, and what would be the initial velocity on 
raising the gate 6 inches? 



46 UNITED STATES CRIL SERVICE. 

Instruments. — Answer three only. 

1. A transit telescope is said to be achromatic, have no aberra- 
tion, must have a flat field (and various other terms). Define each 
term. 

2. Tell how you would care for an instrument to keep it in good 
order. 

3. How would you use a transit to correct for instrumental lack 
of adjustment in the following cases: 

(a) Prolonging a line. 

(h) Measuring horizontal and vertical angles. 

4. Given the formula for stadia measurement, K s -{- d, show how 
it is derived and how applied. 

5. Draw with pen and ink a longitudinal sketch of a telescope, 
showing the lenses and other parts ; and larger scale sketches to show 
the relative positions of leases and the shapes of same. 



Surveying. — Answer three only. 

1. How would you proceed to establish a base line in a tract of 
land 5 miles by li miles, broken by woods, ponds, streams, etc., to a 
correctness of 50^00? 

2. Having completed that work, how would you fill in your in- 
termediate details? Using a transit reading to 20'', what degree of 
accuracy would you seek to obtain? 

3. Describe how you would set about to obtain 2-ft. contours to 
plot to a scale of y-^^o^. 

4. If the above is not according to your idea of procedure, de- 
scribe in detail what you would do to obtain the necessary infor- 
mation. 

Design and Construction. 

1. Write specifications for concrete under water or on a wet sub- 
soil, and give the tests required for each kind of material. This is 
to test the writer's knowledge of specification writing. 

2. Describe what, in your opinion, is the best kind of street pave- 
ment. Draw sketches to show the pavement, sidewalks, sewers, 
drains, water and gas-pipes, etc. 

3. A dam is to be built across a valley and the water level is to be 
30 ft. above the thread of the valley. The soil consists of 6 ft. of 



UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 47 

sandy clay over an indefinite depth of stiff gravelly clay. Make a 
sketch of an earth or masonry dam you would build to impound the 
water. 

4. How would you drive piles in — 
(a) Shifty, sandy soil? 

(h) Gravelly soil? 
(c) Stiff clay? 

What precautions would you take? What length of pile would 
you use? How would you determine the bearing value of a pile in 
each case? 

5. To design a wooden truss to carry a given load over a given 
span. 



48 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

EXAMINATIONS FOE ASSISTANT CIVIL ENGINEEES 
IN THE UNITED STATES NAVY. 

Under date of June 30th, 1904, the Navy Department has issued 
the following list of rules regarding the examinations: 

No person shall be appointed who is less than 23 or more than 28 
years of age. 

Candidates for appointment shall be examined as to their physical 
fitness by a board of medical officers of the navy and as to their 
mental and professional qualifications by a board of such officers as 
the Secretary of the Navy may designate for the purpose. 

The physical examination shall precede the mental and profes- 
sional, and if a candidate is found physically unfit for appointment 
he shall not be further examined. 

Application for permits to be examined must be made to the Sec- 
retary of the Navy, and must be accompanied by testimonials as to 
character, evidence of American citizenship, evidence of having 
received a degree in the civil engineering course of some profes- 
sional institution of good repute, with a record of at least two years' 
•practical experience as a civil engineer. No person shall be admitted 
who has been examined at any time within one year prior to the 
date of this examination and failed to meet the professional require- 
ments. 

The mental and professional examination will be competitive 
and in writing and will comprise such subjects as the following: 
Testimonials and adaptability; English grammar and composition; 
elementary physics; elementary geology; drawing; arithmetic; alge- 
bra; geometry; trigonometry; analytical geometry; differential and 
integral calculus; applied mathematics, including mechanics of 
solids and fluids and strains in structures; electricity; construction 
materials; engineering constructions, such as workshops, steam and 
electrical machinery, quay walls, wharves, sewers, yard railways, 
pavements, water distribution, foundations, etc.; surveying (topo- 
graphical, trigonometrical, and hydrographical) and mapping; in- 
struments, their use and adjustment. 

Candidates who pass satisfactorily will be arranged by the board 
in the order of their relative merit as determined by such profes- 
sional examination, and appointments will be made in such order, 
but no candidate will be considered as having passed a satisfactory 
examination, or be appointed who does not attain a general average 
of 80%. 

The examination will be held beginning August 1st, 1904, at the 
navy yard, New York, N. Y., and candidates to whom permits may 
be issued should present themselves before the medical officer or 
board at that place at 10 o'clock a. m. on that date. The profes- 
sional examination will occupy about ten days. 



UNITED STATES NAVY.' 49 

PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

September 6, 1898. 

1. Name in full. 

2. Whether or not a citizen of the United States of America. 

3. When and where born; age in years and months on Sept. 6, 
1898. 

4. Present address in Washington. 

5. Usual address, town, county and state. 

6. Statement in detail of engineering instruction received. 

7. Tabulated statement of positions held; time in each; detailed 
description of work. 

Grammar. 

1. Name the principal marks used in punctuation and give 
their relative value and uses. 

2. What mood most frequently occurs in specifications, and 
what moods and tenses may be used? 

3. "Purchasing pay officers will be furnished with funds for 
the paj^ment of bills upon requisitions prepared in the office of the 
Paymaster General, due notice of the drawing of which will be sent 



to the purchasing officer." 

Analyze the above sentence. Parse the underscored words, giv- 
ing part of speech, number, person, degree, mood, tense, etc., so far 
as applicable. 

4. Give a list of the relative pronouns. Give a list of the prep- 
ositions of place and direction. What are the regular endings of 
participles ? 

5. Name the most frequently used conjunctions; divide them 
into classes, and define the characteristics of each class. 

Composition. 

Give a description, from 300 to 500 words in length, of some engi- 
neering work with which you are familiar, and upon which you have 
been employed. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Given three buildings 129.2 ft., 191.4 ft., and 295.8 ft., respec- 
tively, c. to c. of end posts, in which it is desired that the panel 



5Q UNITED STATES NAVY. 

lengths shall be the same and as long as consistent with this condi- 
tion, what is the length of panel to be used ? 

2. The length of a bridge panel is 16 ft. s^-in., c. to c. The 
depth of truss is 24 ft, c to c. of chords. What will be the center 
length of an eye-bar providing for a 6-in. pin and a clearance of 
/^-in. in each eye of the bar ? 

3. A rectangular prism has a base of 496 by 558 ft. and a height 
of 186 ft. What is the edge of a cube having the same volume? 

4. Find the weight in kilograms of a hexagonal prism of a sub- 
stance whose specij&c gravity is 2.3 and whose dimensions are 
554.256 mm., on each edge of the hexagon, and 3 m. perpendicular 
distance between the hexagonal end faces? 

5. A square test-piece, originally 8 in. between measuring 
points, measures 10.35 in. after fracture. What is its percentage of 
elongation? Its original area was 0.567 sq. in., its rectangular 
dimensions at fracture are 0.493 in., and 0.562 in. What is its per- 
<;entage of reduction of area at fracture? What were its original 
dimensions ? 

6. What is the cost per cubic yard of finished concrete in place 
when composed of the following ingredients and worked by the 
following labor? 

16 cu. yd. of silica sea- washed gravel, voids, 37%, at $1.45 per 
cu. yd. 

Sand used in excess to extent of 22%, voids, 43%, at $0.85 per 
cu. yd. Portland cement used in excess to extent of 16%, $1.96 per 
bbl. Labor, ^ superintendent at $6.00; -| leading man at $3.76; two 
second-class masons at $3.28; four first-class hod carriers at $1.76; 
two third-class laborers at $1.28, and two fourth-class laborers 
at $1.04. 

Physics. 

1. Define the term "hygrometric condition of the atmosphere," 
and describe a method of determining this condition. What trouble 
is experienced in compressed-air machinery on account of moisture 
in the air ? 

2. How is sound transmitted from point to point, and at what 
rate in an ordinary occupied hall? Show how you would construct 
a building so as to prevent sound passing from one room to another. 
Ji)xplain how such a construction attains the desired end. 

3. Draw diagrams to show the arrangement of lenses, the axes 
and the paths of rays of light in an ordinary direct telescope, an 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 61 

inverted telescope and a field glass. What advantage has the second 
over the first? 

4. Define specific heat, and state which is greater, that of gases 
at constant pressure, or at constant volume. What work is a meas- 
ure of the difference? Show how to measure the temperature of a 
furnace, when the only tools at hand are a pocket thermometer, 
reading to 5° between 20° and 120° Fahr., and such articles as can 
ordinarily be found in a country general store. 

5. Draw a heat engine diagram, and indicate at what points 
entrance and exliaust parts were opened and closed, which curves 
are isothermal, which are adiabatic, and state upon what the theo- 
retical efficiency of a heat engine depends. 

6. An alternating current dynamo delivers 20 amperes under 
140 volts at the terminals of a step-up converter, the efficiency of the 
converter being 68%, what current will be delivered in the line at 
a voltage of 3 000? Allowing 3% loss in the line up to the terminals 
of a converter of 85% efficiency, which delivers current to a lamp 
circuit of 56 volts, what current flows in the lamp circuit? What is 
the efficiency of distribution from the dynamo terminals of the step- 
up converter? Describe the principle and construction of the con- 
verters. What is the most prominent mechanical difference between 
the construction of alternating-current and direct-current dynamos ? 

Geology. 

1. Explain the formation of anthracite and bituminous coals, 
petroleum, and natural gas. 

2. What are the principal ores of iron, and about what per cent, 
of metal does each contain? 

3. What is the composition of granite ? Of gneiss ? Of cyanite ? 

4. What are artesian wells? Whence is drawn their supply? In 
what formation would you expect to find artesian water? What is 
the difference between ordinary driven wells and artesian wells? 

5. Explain amorphous and laminated structure in building 
stones, and state what precautions should be used in laying each 
kind. 



Algebra. 

1. Eind the value of 

VW+£X+x^ ^^^^ ^ ^ (6-Ja 
V (a2 J^x'^) — x 2 y 6c 



5^ UNITED STATES NAVY. 

■ 2. Divide the product of a;2 + 3 a; + 2, a;2 — 5 x + 4, x^ + 5 a;2 
— 14, by the product of x^ — 1, a;2 — 2. 

. 3. Extract the cube root of 27 x^ — 'ilx^y — 45 x^ y^ + 35 x^ y^ 
+ 30 a;2 2/4 _ 12 x 2/^ — 8 2/^. 

4. Find values of x and y by solving the expressions, 

x^ + 2/2 = 136 and a;2 — 24 2/ = 11. 

5. Define logarithms and explain their use in extraction of roots 
and determination of powers of numbers. 



Geometry. 

1. Using the double-circle method, construct graphically an 
ellipse whose major and minor axes shall be in the ratio of 3 to 2. 

2. Find graphically the center of a given circular arc. Explain 
the geometrical reason for the method. 

3. Bisect the angle A of any triangle A B C sd, A, draw a per- 
pendicular to the bisectrix. Prove that the sum of the distances from 
any point P on this perpendicular to B and G is greater than the 
sum oi A B and A G. 

4. Reduce, graphically, the area given to a right-angled triangle 
of equal area. Give geometrical proof of the method. 

5. Prove, geometrically, that the frustum of a pyramid is equal 
to the sum of three pyramids whose height is the height of the frus- 
tum and whose bases are the bases of the frustum, and a mean 
proportional between them. 



Trigonometry. 

1. Given, sin a = 0.5; cos a = 0.87; sin h = 0.8; cos h = 0.65. 
Find sin (a — h) ; cos (a -\- h). Is the sum of a and h greater or 
less than 60° ? Show how this can be proven. 

2. Eind the value of tan (a -\- h) when tan a ^ 1 and tan h == 
1.4. Is the sum of a and h greater than 30°, greater than 90° and 
greater than 135°? 

3. Given a triangle whose sides are 8, x and y, and whose angles 
have the following functions : 



a 


Sin - 
0.82 


Cos 
0.57 
0.44 
0.48 


Tan 
1.43 
2.05 
1.80 


Cot 
0.70 


fc 


0.90 


0.49 


c 


0.87 


0.55 



IJNITED STATES NAVY. "53 

Find the len^hs of the other sides. 




4. Kepresent, graphically, the sine, versed sine, cosine, tangent, 
cotangent, secant and cosecant of an arc of 60°. Find their values. 

5. Prove that in a circle the sine of 90°, the tangent of 45° and 
the chord of 60° are all equal. 

Analytical Geometry. 

1. Prove that every equation of the first degree between two vari- 
ables is that of a straight line. 

2. Given the equation of the circle x^ -\- y^ = 25, find the equa- 
tion of a tangent at the point 4, 3. 

3. Deduce the equation of a parabola referred to rectangular co- 
ordinates, origin at the vertex. 

4. Give the equation of the equilateral hyperbola referred to its 
asymptotes, these co-ordinate axes being rfectangular. Where is this 
equation of practical use? 

5. Given the general equations of line and circle : 

A X + B y -}- C = 0,andx^ -{- y^ -{- Ax -h B y -{- C = 0. 
prove analytically that the common chords of three intersecting 
arches intersect in a common point. 



Differential Calculus. 
1. Differentiate a x^ and prove the result. 



2. Differentiate — log A x. 

x^ 

3. A square piece of sheet metal is to have a square cut out from 
each corner, and the four projecting flaps are to be bent up so as to 
form a tank. What must be the side of the part cut out that the 
volume of the tank may be a maximum. 



54 united states navy. 

Integral Calculus. 

1. Find r(a — 4: x)^ d x. 

2. Deduce the general formula for the area of a plane figure in 
polar co-ordinates. Find the area of a circle by this formula. 

Instruments. 

1. Draw a diagram which will show the principal features of a 
plain transit. Give the adjustments in order and describe them. 

2. Draw a diagram which will show the principal features of a 
Y-level. Give the adjustments in order and describe them. 

3. Describe the surveyor's compass and state in what important 
respect the mariner's compass differs from it. 

4. Having no leveling instrument or leveling tool at hand, con- 
struct a level of sufficient accuracy for ordinary drainage work. 

Drawing. 

1. Draw a plan and two elevations of a pile of blocks as follows : 
The lower 3 by li by i in., lying on the horizontal plane, its long 
edge making an angle of 30° with the vertical plane; the second of 
the same section, but 1 in. shorter, lying on the first and making 
with it an angle of 45° ; the third, a rhomboid, with largest edge 1 
in., lying upon the second. Show the shade lines, the light rays 
making an angle of 45° with both the horizontal and vertical planes. 
Show shadows. 

2. Draw in isometric projection a cube of 8 in. edge. Show a 
square hole with 1 in. edge through the middle of the cube, from top 
to bottom. Show circular holes 1 in. diameter through the cube from 
the centers of the other faces. Show recess 2 in. diameter and ^ in. 
deep around hole on left-hand side. Show square collar i in. high, 
1 in. internal diameter and 2 in. external diameter, around hole on 
right-hand face. 

3. Make a finished tracing of either 1 or 2. 

4. From the drawing furnished, state each element and its func- 
tion in the machine. 

5. Make a finished topographical map from the sketch furnished. 



Surveying. 

1. Fill out the notes given below; correct the readings for curva- 
ture and refraction, and find the elevation of the second bench 
mark : 



UNITED STATES XAVY. 



55 



Dist. fr. 
Sta. level. B. S. H. I. F. S. Elev. 

B. if.. No. 1 100 ft. 4.522 25.373 

A 500 ft 11.167 

A 75 ft. 1.277 

5. .¥., No. 2 450 ft 7.423 

All readings are in feet. 

Describe method of making and locating bench marks in a wild 
country. 

2. A bench mark on shore reads 24.96 ft., referred to Cairo 
datum; this datum is 21.26 ft. below mean Gulf level; the zero of a 
standard tide gage is 20.91 above mean Gulf level. Starting from 
the bench mark, set a tide gage with Gulf level for zero. Tide gage 
reads 3.7 ft. ; reduce a sounding of 59 ft. to zero of the standard gage. 

3. Show how to make a topographical survey of the hill indicated 
(Fig. 2), and determine the number of cubic yards it contains. As- 
sume any elevations and distances you may choose. 




Fig. 2. 



4. Having a property located on a river front, as indicated (Fig. 
3), locate soundings and the course and rate of current, having only 
one transit. Graduate a sounding line for use on the above work. 
Describe a float for use in ascertaining the discharge of a stream. 




Fig. 3. 



5. Having a field bounded by the lines passing between the 
pbints A, B, C, D, E, F, G, E, I, J (Fig. 4), all of which are about 
5 ft. above the level of high water in the river; dense woods in the 
areas indicated; a hill 35 ft. high; a wall 20 ft. high; a swamp and a 
slough in the indicated positions; and the points I and J marked 
by piles in the river; show how lines would be traced and their 



5Q 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



lengths and directions determined. The branch of the slough where 
it is crossed by the lines H I I J and J A are about 700 ft. long. 




Fig. 4. 



Graphics. 



1. Given a beam 25 ft. in length, and v^^eighing 150 lb. per ft., 
with weights distributed as shown in sketch (Fig. 5) ; find graphically 
the amount and location of the greatest bending moment. Also show 
graphically the shear. Find both analytically. 



Ml 



s 
m 



;-j'>K-- 






FiG. 5. 






2. Determine graphically the stresses in the members of the roof 
truss shown in diagram (Fig. 6), the load, including the weight of 
the roof, to equal 45 lb. per sq. ft. Trusses to be 24 ft. c. to c. 




Fig. 6. 



General Principles of Mechanics. 

1. A train's speed is 45 miles per hour. Its wheel base, uniformly 
distributed, is 8 ft. The curve upon which it is running is of 1 000 
ft. radius. The load upon each axle is 14 000 lb. Ties are spaced 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



57 



2 ft. centers. The side resistance of a spike is 1 200 lb. How 
many spikes are required in each tie to make the factor of safety 4? 

2. Show how to find, experimentally, the center of ^avity of a 
shape of irregular section (Fig. 7), where the end is cut in a plane 
normal to the longitudinal axis of the piece and can be easily 
reached for inspection and measurement. Let the section be that 
shown in the diagram. Find, also, the center of gravity of this sec- 
tion analytically. 



Q 



|«/r^.. £.'->(./':,<... J 



k/i 



-^i'- 



></' 



Fig 7. 

3. Find the moment of inertia of the above section about an axis 
through the center of gravity, and parallel with the long edge. 

4. Given a pile which has been driven 40 ft., and which is 6 in. 
in diameter at the lower end and 13 in. at the surface of the ground; 
what is the frictional resistance per square inch of the pile if the 
next blow of a 3 000-lb. hammer, falling freely 20 ft., sinks the pile 
1 in.? 

5. A car starts down a grade of 1%. What is the coefficient of 
friction ? What kinds of friction exist, and at what points ? Which 
kind is the greater in this case ? 



Mechanics of Fluids. 

1. Find entire pressure and center of pressure on a trapezoidal 
gate, the upper edge of which is 80 ft. long; the lower edge 65 ft.; 
the depth of water being 28 feet. 

2. A wooden sphere, the diameter of which is 8 in. and the spe- 
cific gravity 0.75, is placed in water. To what depth will it sink ? 

3. Give the Chezy formula ; explain the meaning of all the terms 
entering into it; state what modifications, if any, you would make 
in its use. 



58 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



4. Make a diagram of and explain the principle of action of the 
hydraulic ram. 

5. Explain the purpose, principle and action of an accumulator. 

Cranes. 




Fig. 8. 

1. Determine the stresses in the members of this crane (Fig. 8), 
both analytically and graphically. 

Chimneys. 

1. A steel chimney 150 ft. high and 9 ft. in external diameter is 
to be constructed. What number of |-in. rivets will be required in 
the horizontal joint 30 ft. above the ground, the wind pressure being 
assumed at 40 lb. per sq. ft. ? 



Constructional Materials. 

1. Provided Indiana limestone and the commonly used brown- 
stone cost the same per cubic foot, which would be preferable for 
ashlar work in the vicinity of ISTew York or Boston? Why? 

2. For polished decorative work on buildings, what stone would 
you use for outside work ? What for interior work ? For what work 
would you use bluestone? 

3. How are bricks classified ? What kind would you use for house 
fronts? What in boiler settings? What in steel chimney linings? 
What in pavements ? 

4. What cement would you use where it is desirable to have as 
great strength as possible ? What where less strength is required 
and economy in first cost is essential? What tensile strength would 
you expect each to show in test briquettes at the end of seven days ? 
What is the difference in composition and action of these cements? 



UNITED STATES NAVY. t^ 

5. Of what is concrete made? What are the proportions com- 
monly used? How should it be mixed? How put in place? On 
what does its value depend? What precautions should be taken in 
its use? 

6. What are the principal kinds of glass used in ordinary building 
construction? What would you require for a six-light sash, 12 by 15 
in. panes, to be used in a good store house? What glass would you 
use in good skylights? What are the standard sizes of tin roofing 
plates? Is IC or IX the heavier plate? How should tin be laid on a 
steep roof? How on a roof of little pitch? 

7. Describe the characteristics of cj^ress, yellow pine, white pine, 
hemlock, spruce, poplar, ash and oak. 

8. State what should be used for each of the following purposes : 
Norfolk bearing piles; Boston bearing piles; wales; first-class floor 
beams and joists; door and window trimmings; ofiice and house 
wainscoting; sheathed partitions, and wooden ceilings. 

9. How does prime inspection differ from mercantile inspection? 

10. What is the composition of the best paints for wood, iron 
and tin surfaces ? What would be used on stained uncarpeted floors ? 
What on hardwood trimmings to show the natural color and grain? 

11. ]!^ame the principal metals used in engineering work and 
give their range of strength in tension. Name the common elements 
occurring in metals of engineering and describe their effects upon 
the physical properties. 

12. What is galvanized iron ? In what form is it commonly used 
for roofs and sidings of buildings? In what for gutters and down- 
spouts? Thickness commonly used? Usual sizes of manufactured 
sheets? Upon what does its durability depend? 

13. In what form is copper used in building? What are its ad- 
vantages over tin or galvanized iron? What two kinds are used? 
What are the characteristics of each? 

14. What considerations of theory and practice determine the 
sections of the usual commercial forms of structural iron and steel ? 



Engineering Construction. 

1. Draw diagrams of sections of the following floors: End con- 
struction, hollow tile; side construction, porous terra cotta; buckle 
plates; slow-burning mill construction. 

2. Describe the construction of each of the above floors, and its 
action under fire and water and under repeated blows. 



wW UNITED STATES NAVY. 

3. Design a flight of stairs/ 4 ft. wide, between two floors 14 ft. 
apart vertically; strings to be of steel and treads of yellow pine. 

4. In a 100-f t. plate girder, having continuous flange angles and 
a web consisting of five plates, explain why holes may mismatch 
after being correctly laid ofl and accurately punched. How may this 
difficulty be avoided ? 

5. What are the requisites of good machine riveting? Why is 
machine riveting preferred to hand riveting? How can loose rivets 
be detected? 

Pavements. 

1. Describe Telford and Macadam roads. Make sketches of cross- 
sections, showing the construction of each. What amount of crown- 
ing would you give? What is the best stone to use and why? 

2. Describe the construction of the best quality of granite block 
paved streets, of brick paved streets, and of asphalt paved streets. 

3. Under heavy traflic, can a wooden pavement be used economic- 
ally ? If so, how heavy must the traffic be ? Show the best construc- 
tion for wood pavements. 

Dry Docks and Quay Walls. 

1. Draw the transverse section of a concrete dry dock 90 ft. wide 
on the floor and 39 ft. deep, with blocks 4 ft. high and top of blocks 
30 ft. below high water. Determine the thickness of concrete floor 
which will be required if water under bottom of dock is in connec- 
tion with that outside the gates and if the weight of the floor is to 
be depended upon to balance the existing pressure. Show a method 
of building a floor in a dock of this width which will be more 
economical. 

2. Sketch a section through a floating dock to take ships drawing 
18 ft. of water. • 

3. Design a quay wall to be built under the following conditions: 
Mean rise and fall of tide, 12 ft. ; extreme rise and fall, 19 ft. ; 
bottom slope, about 1 : 10, running out to depth of 35 ft. at extreme 
low water; character of bottom, sand and indurated gravel into 
which timber piles can be driven by impact about 6 to 8 ft.; the 
teredo is very bad, destroying timber in from one to three years; 
timber plentiful; material for fill, sand and gravel from dredging or 
from the neighborhood; broken stone obtainable from quarry near 
by; depth of water alongside to be at least 20 ft. at extreme low 
water, and 30 ft. at a distance of 20 ft. from the wall; dredged 
slopes have stood for years in deep water at 1 on 1. 



united states navy. 61 

Wharf. 

1. Given conditions as shown in the subjoined sketch (Fig. 9), 
design a wharf alongside of which ships 400 ft. long, drawing 28 ft. 
of water, can lie. 



Fig. 9. 

Boilers^ Engines and Electric Plant. 

1. Draw a longitudinal diagram of a brick boiler-setting for a 
horizontal return tubular boiler in which the fire-sheet is extended 
beyond the head tube-sheet to form the bottom and sides of the 
smoke connection. 

2. State what ratio should exist between the area of grate and 
the area over bridge wall. What is a good ratio of heating surface to 
grate area? 

3. Where should hand and man-holes be located? Draw sketch 
of man-hole cover, and show how it is fastened in place to insure a 
steam-tight joint. How many back-stays should be provided for 
an 18-f t. tubular boiler, 60 in. in diameter ? 

4. Make a diagram of and explain the principle and action of 
an injector on a steam boiler. Where is the exhaust pump located 
in a jet condenser, and why ? 

5. Give essential differences between engines for mills and for 
electric light plants. 

6. Draw a section of a brick chimney 100 ft. high, having a flue 
4 ft. square, on a concrete foundation placed upon a good bed of 
gravel which is 50 ft. thick. 

7. Illustrate by diagram the three-wire system of electric dis- 
tribution. State what voltage you would specify for generators, 
motors, arc lamps, and show how they would be connected in the 
same three-wire system. Explain the use of feeders. 

Masonry and Eoundations. 

1. What are footing courses and what purpose do they serve? 
Draw diagram showing stone footing courses for a 32-ft. wall, and 
brick footing courses for a 24-ft. wall. 



OZ UNITED STATES NAVY. 

2. Design a flying buttress to give a clear space of at least 12 
in. wide by 15 ft. high between it an^ the building, and to take the 
thrust of 125 000 lb. at an angle of 45° with the horizon at 25 ft. 
above the surface of the ground. 

3. Design an abutment for a double-track railway bridge to span 
a street 60 ft. wide, to give a clear headway of 15 ft. and to be 
located on a good gravel foundation. 

4. Draw diagram of and explain the construction of a founda- 
tion such as is much used in Chicago to support a heavy steel frame 
building on a light compressible soil. 

5. Design a foundation for a column to be placed at A (Fig. 10) 
to support a load of 350 000 lb. 





Surface of Ore 


^und K 


H.W.L ^ /^ 


Gravel 


1 


^ 


Rubbish 


•i 


V 






^ 


Mud 


i 



Stiff Qay 
Fig. 10. 

Yard Eailways. 

1. Draw a diagram to show a 'System of construction when a 
girder rail is used. What objection is there to the use of girder rails 
in the streets of navy yards where ordinary freight cars can be 
hauled over them ? 

2. Show a system of track construction in which T-rails are used 
in paved streets in such a way as not to interfere with the ordinary 
wheeled traffic. 

3. Put a light curve in a T-rail track without the use of a rail 
bender. 

4. Draw diagram of a turnout, using a safety switch and bolted 
frog. 

5. Illustrate by diagram and describe apparatus necessary to 
transfer freight cars from floats to yard tracks, the coping level 
being 5 ft. above mean high water, and the mean rise and fall of the 
tide being 6 ft. 



united states navy. 63 

Water Distribution and Sewers. 

1. A yard supply is drawn from springs flowing, approximately, 
100 000 gal. per day. Design a well so that this entire flow can 
be utilized by a pump working 8 hours per day. Sketch plan and 
section of well. 

2. Given a yard supply as in the above question; design a steel 
tank or tanks to hold 500 000 gal., sketching plan, section and 
elevation, and showing foundation on slightly compressible soil, 
thickness of metal, size and spacing of rivets. Give also details of 
pipe connections. 

3. The above tank or tanks being located on a hill 200 ft. above 
the working portion of a yard and three-quarters of a mile distant, 
what thickness would you give to the cast-iron distributing mains, 
from tank to tide-level, for 4-in., 6-in., and 8-in. pipe ? 

4. A large, circular city sewer, 6 ft. in internal diameter, dis- 
charges into the water fronting a navy yard. Design a diverting 
sewer of semi-circular section, with pile and timber foundation, to 
carry the sewage through the yard to its boundary. The sewer to 
be strong enough to support the passage over it of the heaviest 
weights likely to be met with in navy yards. The junction with the 
old sewer to be arranged to permit the use of the latter for storm 
waters. What change in bottom and foundation would you make 
where it passed over a compact bed of gravel of considerable 
thickness ? 

5. Describe methods of giving grade, and the laying of pipe 
sewers. 



64 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS EOR EXAMINATION HELD 

DECEMBER, 1900, TO FILL VACANCIES IN THE 

CORPS OE CIVIL ENGINEERS, U. S. NAVY. 

Personal Data. 

(a) Name in full, (b) Whether or not a citizen of the United 
States of America, (c) When and where born. Age in years and 
months on December IT, 1900. (d) Local address while taking ex- 
amination, (e) Usual address, town, county and state, (f) State- 
ment in detail of engineering education received, (g) Tabulated 
statement of positions held, time in each, detailed description of 
work. 

Drawing Materials Which Should Be Brought In by Candidates. 

Drawing board, about 15 by 20 in.; T-square; triangles, 30° and 
45°; thumb tacks; a plain set of instruments; drawing pencils, map- 
ping pens ; red and black drawing inks ; scales ; drawing paper, white 
and detail, of each about 4 sq. ft. ; tracing cloth, about 4 sq. ft. All 
drawings must be made to trim to 8^ by 14 in., with a proper margin 
for binding. 

English Composition. 

Write a letter to the Board, about two pages in length, stating 
clearly and concisely what in your opinion is the most desirable 
branch of the civil engineering profession to be followed in civil 
life and why. 

English Grammar. 

1. Correct the following sentences if necessary and give reasons: 
(a) Were it true that a sufficient strata of clay exists at that level 
Smith and myself should have the information, (h) It is they 
whom our thoughtless friend would offend if he was present at the 
time, (c) To myself it has occurred that were he in a syndicate he 
would neither be so outspoken or so bitter in his opposition against 
such organizations, (d) Though he m'ay try to impress on his aud- 
itors his own wide experience, he only succeeds in earning for him- 
self the ridicule of those of even superficial education, (e) Well as 
he appears since his confinement with typhoid, he always complains 
of feeling badly. 

2. Analyze the following sentence: Though he served or tried 
to serve Russia as faithfully as he -had served America, the condi- 
tions he encountered were not adapted to his temperament. 

3. Give a tabular synopsis of the voices, moods and tenses of 
verbs, and illustrate by the first person singular of each of the fol- 
lowing: Begin, get, eat, draw, bring. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 65 

4. State the rule for the usual formation of the plural of nouns 
and illustrate by three examples. State the plural of the following: 
Mouse, deer, man, woman, foot, swine, goose, vermin, box, cow, 
means, potato, wolf, ox, chimney, fairy, elf. 

5. Classify and decline the following pronouns : I, whoever, that, 
you, it, myself. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Find the least common multiple of the following numbers, 
giving all work: 668304, 2100384, 12285. 

2. Below are given the rod readings at the corners of 10-ft. 
squares taken over a portion of a borrow pit. Determine the amount 
excavated in cubic yards and also the side of a square bin 10 ft. 
deep which will just contain the excavated material. The rod read- 
ings are in feet. 



10 


6 


3 


2 


7 


4 


5 


10 


6 


7 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


3 


7 


5 


6 


4 


5 


4 


7 


3 


6 


10 


12 


7 


9 


10 


5 


2 






6 


8 


16 


20 


25 


12 


8 


4 


6 






5 


8 


5 


13 


24 


14 


6 


7 










4 


2 


9 


11 


7 


3 


5 










10 


6 


4 
5 


3 

2 


5 
4 


6 

8 









3. Find the partial and total feet, board measure, in the follow- 
ing bill of timber: 71 pieces 12 in. X 14 in. X 22 ft.; 16 pieces 12 
in. X 12 in. X 30 ft.; 27 pieces 10 in. X 12 in. X 20 ft.; 116 pieces 
6 in. X 8 in. X 18 ft. ; 317 pieces 3 in. X 14 in. X 24 ft. ; 18 pieces 
3 in. X 10 in. X 22 ft.; 74 pieces 2 in. X 8 in. X 16 ft.; 506 pieces 
U in. X 12 in. X 24 ft.; 117 pieces U in. X 6 in. X 16 ft.; 221 
pieces 3 in. X 4 in. X 18 ft. 

4. Determine the cube root of the following, giving all work: 
57.825915363. 

Algebra. 

1. Reduce to its lowest terms : 

8 aH2 — 10 a ?>3 + 2 6* 



9 a* 6 — 9 a3 52 _|_ 3 (j2 53 _ 3 f^ 54 

2. Find the value of: 

h c d c d a 



(a — h) (a —c){a — d) ^ (h — c) (b — d) (b — a) 
dab ah c 



+ 



(c_d^) (c — a) (c — 6) ' (d — a)(d — h)(d — cy 



66 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

3. Extract the cube root of: 

27 x^ — 21 T' y — 45 x* y'^ + 35 x^ y^ + ^Q x^ y^ — 12 x y^ — S y^ 

4. Solve the following equations : 

3 a:2 + 165 =r 16 a; 2/ 7 a: 2/ + 3 2/2 = 132 

5. Expand to six terms: 

1 



(2 a — 3 xf 



Geometry. 



1. If from a variable point P in the base of an isosceles triang'le 
ABC, perpendiculars P M, P N to the sides are drawn, the sum 
of P M and P N is constant and equal to the perpendicular from C 
upon A B. See the subjoined figure. 




2. Demonstrate that if through P, one of the points of intersec- 
tion of two circumferences, any two secants A P B and C P D are 
drawn, the straight lines A C and B D joining the extremities of the 
secants, make a constant angle E, equal to the angle M P N formed 
by the tangents at P. 




3. Find the lateral area of a frustum of a right cone of altitude 
10, diameters of bases 8 and 12, and prove the formula used. 

4. Prove that in a regular tetrahedron, three times the square 
on an altitude equals twice the square of an edge. 

5. Define spherical excess and prove that a spherical triangle 
equals a lune whose angle is half the spherical excess on the triangle. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



67 



Trigonometry. 

1. Express all the other trigonometric functions in terms of the 
sine and prove the expressions. 

2. Develop the expressions for the sine of the sum and the sine 
of the difference of two angles. Also develop 

Sine (a -\- h -\- c). 




3. Find the missing values of the angle and sides in the triangle 
shown and derive the formula used to obtain the sides. 

4. Give Napier's rules of circular parts and illustrate the same 
by a diagram. 

Axata'tical Geometry and Calculus. 

la. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through 
two given points. 

lb. Demonstrate that the straight lines drawn from the angles 
of a triangle to the middle points of the opposite sides meet at a 
point. Use the subjoined figure and notation. 




2. Deduce the general polar equation of the circle and show its 
form when the center is at the pole. 

3. Demonstrate that from any external point two tangents can 
be drawn to an ellipse, and determine the equation of the chord of 
contact. 

4. Discuss by differential calculus the curve represented by 

ct^ X 
^ a2 + x2 



68 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



6. rind by integration the area between the parabola 



and the circle 
Show all work. 



1^ = 4:ax 



ax 



Physics. 

1. Neglecting friction, find the power to be applied at the end 
of the crank, and also the rate of hoisting the load when the crank 
is revolved four times per minute. 




2. Draw a diagram of essential elements of a phonograph, de- 
scribe the method of using the instrument, and give the principles 
upon which its operation depends. 

3. Describe one of the more common forms of commercial ice 
machines, and give the principles and cycle of operations. 

4. Describe the phenomena of the rainbow. Show when they 
may occur, and sketch a diagram showing the paths of rays of light 
from the sun to the eye of the observer. 

5. Draw diagrams of a reflecting galvanometer and a Wheatstone 
bridge. Show how to use the instruments to find the resistance of a 
coil whose resistance is greater than the combined resistance of the 
bridge. 

Geology. 

1. What agencies are now at work to modify the structure of the 
earth crust? Explain the formation of soil. Why does soil accum- 
ulate more rapidly on lowlands than in mountainous regions? 

2. State the origin of granite, quartz, clay, limestones^ corals, 
sandstones, quartzite, coal, lignite. 

3. Wliat law governs the increase of erosive power with velocity 
in running streams ? Give your authority. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 69 

What is an estuary? Give mode of formation. 
What are faults? How caused? What is their effect in the 
exploitation of mines? Give illustrative diagrams. 

4. Explain the origin of icebergs. 

State the principal stratified building stones. What precautions 
should be taken in laying them in a structure ? 

What is the most common igneous rock used in construction? 

What is the most common structure of basalt ? What is the gen- 
erally accepted cause of this formation? 

5. What is the source of aluminum, its method of extraction, its 
principal alloy, its most notable characteristics, the principal draw- 
backs to its general use? 

WTiat is galena? Malachite? 

What is the composition of hematite, magnetite, limonite, 
pyrites ? '1 \ 



Surveying. 

1. Find the area of the following piece of gTound, determining 
the length of the missing course and also its bearing, giving the 
latter by means of its tangents : 

a to l, K, 20 ft.; I to c, '^. 60° E., 500 ft.; c to d, E., 300 ft.; d 
to e, S. 45° W., 400 ft.; e to f, S. 15° E., 400 ft. 

2. Give day and night methods of determining the true meridian. 
State all instruments, tables, etc., required for the work, explain in 
detail the methods to be employed, and the corrections to be applied 
to observations. 

Discuss the relation between magnetic and true meridians as to 
time and locality. 

3. Give detailed description of the method of making a hydro- 
graphical survey of a tidal river at least 500 ft. across. 

4. Given a level in perfect adjustment, describe in detail the 
method to be employed in running an accurate line of levels, several 
miles in length, over an irregular country. State the precautions 
to be taken and the corrections to be applied for climatic and other 
reasons. 

5. Describe the method you would employ in making a topo- 
graphical survey of a small area of great value to be improved at a 
cost which depends largely upon the conformation of the surface. 

Describe the method you would employ in making a topographical 
survey of a large area of forest, swamp and lake, the value of the 
property being relatively small. 



70 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



Instruments. 

1. Draw a diagram which will show the principal features of a 
plain transit. Give the adjustments in order, describe them, and 
illustrate by diagrams. 

2. Draw a diagram which will show the principal features of a 
Y-level. Give the adjustments in order, describe them, and illustrate 
by diagrams. 

3. Describe the stadia, illustrate by diagram, show its use, and 
deduce all formulae needed for its operation. 

4. Describe the construction and use of the surveying sextant and 
illustrate by diagram. 

Show how the three-arm protractor is used in plotting locations 
determined by sextant angles. 

5. Draw a diagram of a mercurial surveying barometer, showing 
all essential details for adjustment; describe proper methods of 
transportation and use of instrument, and state what tables you 
would use in working up readings. 

Drawing. 

1. Draw plan, one elevation and section parallel to vertical plane 
of the following: 

A hexagonal block, with side 2 in. and height the same, stands 
on the horizontal plane with its centre 3J in. from the vertical plane. 
Through this block is a circular hole li in. in diameter. Standing 
with the center of its base to the left and in a direction from the 
center of the block which makes an angle of 30° with the vertical 
plane, is a right cone with base 3 in. in diameter and height 5 in. 
Show shade lines, shades and shadows, the rays of light coming 
from the left and making an angle of 45° with both horizontal and 
vertical planes. 

2. Make a finished tracing of the above drawing. 

3. Make a perspective of the above blocks with shades and 
shadows. 

4. Make a finished topographical map from the accompanying 
sketch. Reference numbers as follows: 




UNITED STATES NAVY. 



71 



1 bay. 

2 sand. 

3 hill. 

4 pond. 

5 creek. 

6 river. 

7 canal. 

8 lock. 

9 bridge. 

10 drawbridge. 

11 railroad. 

12 roads. 



13 streets. 

14 quarry. 

15 swamp. 

16 woods. 

17 grass. 

18 orchard. 

1 cultivated land. 

20 marsh. 

21 piers. 

22 railroad station and 

telegraph office. 

23 post-office. 



24 court-house. 

25 church. 

26 blacksmith's 

27 woolen mill. 

28 sawmill. 

29 grist-mill. 

30 anchorage. 

31 light-house. 

32 hotel. 



shop. 



Mechanics of Solids. 

1. In the sketch shown the plate is i in. thick. The area of the 
10-in. 15-lb. channel is 4.46 sq. in. Its c. of g. is 0.639 in. from back 
of web. Its moment of inertia parallel to the web is 2.30 and per- 
pendicular to web is 66.9. The area of the 6-in. 15.6-lb. Z-bar is 
4.59 sq. in. Its moment of inertia, neutral axis through c. of g. par- 
allel to web, is 9.11 and perpendicular to web is 25.32. 

Find the center of gravity of the combined section, its moment 
of inertia and radius of gyration about a pair of rectangular axes, 
parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the web of the Z-bar and 
passing through the c. of g. of the section. 




2. A medium steel shaft, 10 ft. long and 4 in. in diameter, has a 
gear wheel 6 ft. in diameter keyed on one end. Using ordinary 
factors of safety for running shafting, what is the greatest horse- 
power which can be transmitted ? Give values for ultimate strength 
and safety factor used. 



3. A standpipe, 80 ft. high and 30 ft. diameter, is constructed of 
soft steel plates, with lapped joints. Wliat must be the thickness 
of the bottom course of side plates, using the customary values for 
the safe strength of the material ? Seven-eighths-inch rivets being 
used, what must be the spacing of rivets in vertical seams in this 
course ? 



72 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

4. Design a reservoir wall of Portland cement concrete, the inner 
face to be vertical and the height to be 20 ft., the outer face to be 
uniformly battered ; water level, 2 ft. below top. 

5. Illustrate by means of the following diagram the method and 
principles of design of a stone arch, supplying any further lines 
necessary for the purpose. 



150' 



Mechanics of Fluids. 

1. Find the total pressure on the surface of a material cylinder 
oJL length 3 ft. and diameter 2 ft., its axis parallel to the surface of 
the water, in which it is immersed to a depth of 10 in. from surface 
to axis. 

2. Explain the turbine and impulse wheels; make a diagram of 
each and show when each should be used. 

3. Give the formula for the flow of water through a pipe f full 
and discuss it. 

4. Let h be the total head on a pipe, IV the head lost in entrance, 
/?/'' that lost in friction, ]i^[' that lost in valves, bends, etc. ; deduce a 
formula for velocity and one for discharge from a circular pipe. 

5. Derive and discuss the formula for the flow of water through 
a rectangular vertical orifice, its upper edge being coincident with 
the surface; a rectangular vertical orifice, its upper edge parallel to 
biit below the surface of the water; a circular vertical orifice below 
the surface of the water. 

Pavements. 

1. Make sketches and describe in detail the design and construc- 
tion of an asphalt paved residence street 120 ft. wide between house 
lines. 

2. Make sketches and describe in detail the design and construc- 
tion of a granite block paved street 60 ft. wide between store houses 
having the receiving and delivering doors on both sides of the same. 
Include a crossing. 

3. Make sketches and describe in detail the design and construc- 
tion of a brick paved street 80 ft. wide in a retail district, the street 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



73 



to have a double-track for street cars. Width to be between store 
fronts. 

4. Make sketches and describe in detail the design and construc- 
tion of a macadam park drive 40 ft. wide. 

5. Make sketches and describe in detail the design and construc- 
tion of a gravel country road through a clay region, the road to be 
of small cost and sufficient for a small amount of traffic in heavy 
wagons. 

Boilers and Engines. 

1. Give the ordinary commercial rules for rating the horse-power 
of boilers. 

What quantity of steam is required per horse-power per hour 
in the best quality of condensing engines of about 500 HP. ? 

2. Would a chimnej^ 60 ft. high, having a flue 4 ft. in diameter, 
be equally good for anthracite and bituminous burning furnaces? 
If not, why not ? 

Give the essential features to be considered in the design of a 
furnace for the burning of anthracite coal and of one for a bitumi- 
nous coal having a large percentage of volatile hydrocarbons. 

3. Sketch the following different kinds of boilers: Return tub- 
ular, vertical fire tubular, water tubular, Scotch, locomotive. 

State the advantages and. disadvantages of each, describing, 
among other things, wrought iron, cast iron, cast steel, flowed steel 
and wrought steel, corrugated flues, straight tubes and curved tubes. 

4. What elements should be included in the specification for an 
efficient 500-HP. cross-compound condensing engine direct-connected 
to two electric generators used for electric-light service ? 

5. Make diagrams of and describe jet and surface condensers, 
give the advantages and disadvantages of each, state the auxiliary 
machinery required in connection with condensers, and state what 
you know of central condensers for a plant of several engines. 

Strlxtures. 

1. Design a machine shop 300 ft. long and 90 ft. wide, walls 30 
ft. high, benches, and belted tools to be placed on the sides of the 
shop, the central bay to be a single story served by a traveling crane 
and having a railroad track and floor for heavy, movable tools. Ma- 
terials are to be steel, brick, wood, concrete and slate. Foundations 
supposed to be in a soil which will sustain 1 000 lb. per sq. ft. at a 
depth of 1 ft. and 2 000 lb. at a depth of 10 ft., water met at a depth 
of 5 ft. Weight of 250 lb. per sq. ft. is to be provided for on the 



74 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

second floor and 500 lb. per sq. ft. on the lower floor. Make free- 
hand sketches of plan, longitudinal and cross-sections. 

2. Show full details of second floor using expanded metal or sim- 
ilar construction with fireproofed wood floor. 

3. Show detail of floor in central bay to support work under con- 
struction and electrically-driven movable 15-ton tools. 

4. Show details of a double sash, check-rail, box-frame window 
and the setting of the same in the side wall. 

5. Show in detail and describe fully the construction of a tight 
skylight 6 ft. by 10 ft. in one side of the roof. 

Masonry and Foundations. 

1. Discuss pile foundations in mud, quicksand and clay. Give 
rules for the determination of the bearing power of piles driven by 
ordinary pile-driver and by steam-hammer. Under what conditions 
does each give best results ? Why ? 

2. Under what conditions would you use screw piles and piles 
with disks ? Describe the method you would use to put each kind in 
place. Design the screw end of an 8 -in. steel pile to be placed in 
30 ft. of water, seated in a sandy bottom, and to support 150 000 lb. 

3. Given a machine shop on compressible soil, to supply a foun- 
dation for a 15-ton steam-hammer. Show how you would design 
the foundation without the use of wooden piles. 

4. Give specification for laying best quality of stone masonry; 
also for a brick wall with ashlar front. 

Show how terra -cotta caps and lintels should be laid and secured. 

5. Give specification for Portland cement concrete to be used for 
a building foundation. Give specification for the plastering of a 
room with regular three-coat work. 

Dry-dock. 

The site for a dry-dock having been selected and test piles driven, 
it is found from the latter that the penetration of the piles in the 
bottom of the dock will be about 40 ft. in sticky mud, the penetration 
under the last blow of a 3 000-lb. hammer falling 25 ft. being 1 in. 

Sketch out, free-hand, a design for a concrete dry-dock with 
granite protective trimmings for all necessary points, the dock to be 
600 ft. long on the floor from the gate-sill to first altar at head of 
dock, with a width sufficient for a battleship of 72 ft. 6 in. beam. It 
is desirable to use due economy in the design, and to make the fullest 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 75 

use possible of the piles in conformity with good practice. A caisson 
gate will be used, but no details of it will be required. 

Materuls of Construction. 

1. Describe fully the manufacture and characteristics of high- 
grade building brick, Eoman brick, sewer brick and terra-cotta tile. 

2. Describe the difference between Rosendale and Portland con- 
cretes. Give the conditions under which you would use each kind. 

What is the method you would employ to find the best proportions 
to be used in a concrete composed of broken stone, gravel, sand and 
cement ? 

3. In the case of a granite inverted arch resting on a heavy 
concrete bed in the bottom of a dry-dock, state how you would cut 
and bed each block. 

Give a specification for high-grade roofing slate. 

4. Describe by diagram the method of cutting quartered oak from 
logs; also edge grain flooring. 

Give merchantable inspection for yellow-pine boards and dimen- 
sion lumber. 

5. Describe the characteristics and give some of the principal 
uses for long-leaf yellow pine, loblolly, spruce, white pine, white oak, 
cypress. 

6. Describe briefly the manufacture and characteristics of acid 
open-hearth steel, basic open-hearth steel, Bessemer steel and cast 
iron. 

7. Describe in detail the manufacture by the open-hearth process 
of a modern structural shape, beginning with the taking of the ore 
from the mine, 

8. Describe lead and zinc paints. Give the proper methods and 
proportions of mixing the manufactured article with 'oil and dryers 
for inside and for outside work. 

9. Describe the best paints and other materials for use in pro- 
tecting steel exposed to air and gases in a machine shop, in a water 
tower and trestle, and in a steel pier in a tideway. 

10. Discuss slate, tin and copper for use as a roof covering. De- 
scribe the methods to be used in laying each kind. Give a specifica- 
tion for good roofing tin. 

Eailroads. 

1. What is the degree of curvature of a railroad track? Show 
how a curve can be staked out by the method of tangents. Describe 



76 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

in detail the usual method of staking out 475 ft. of a 4° curve, start- 
ing at station 625-50, using a transit and a 100-ft. tape. 

2. Describe in detail the method and work necessary to lay a 
side-track from a main line already in place. Draw diagrams of 
plans and cross-sections of the parts. 

3. How short a radius can be safely used in yard tracks of 4.7 ft. 
gage ? What limits the radius in this case ? What is the best radius 
to use in industrial tracks of about 21 in. gage as usually built in 
this country? 

4. Make cross-sections of T and girder rails and discuss their 
advantages in street track work. 

5. Indicate in detail the rolling-stock necessary for a large navy 
yard, to include all necessities for the transportation of materials, 
for making general and special repairs, and for convenience and 
economy in all work which may be brought within reach of the track 
system. 

Wharf. 

Design a timber-pile'pier 80 ft. wide, 600 ft. long, for the dockage 
on both sides of ocean steamships. Depth of water at mean low 
water, 27 ft. ; mean rise of tide, 4 ft. ; bottom material, river mud to 
depth of 80 ft. Sketch details and main cross-sections of wharf, 
ready for commercial use. Give necessary formulae used in the 
design. 

Quay Wall. 

Design a quay wall to be built under the following conditions : 
Mean rise and fall of tide, 5 ft.; extreme rise and fall, 9 ft.; 
bottom slope, about 1 to 8, running out to a depth of 32 ft. at 
extreme low water; character of bottom, 2 ft. of mud over sand and 
indurated gravel, into which wooden piles* can be driven by impact 
less than 8 ft.; the water alongside the wharf to be at least 25 ft. 
deep at mean low water, and 30 ft. at mean low water 15 ft. from the 
face of the wall; coping of the wall to be 5 ft. above mean high 
water. 

The wall is to be of a permanent character, located in a semi- 
tropical climate, where the teredo is very active. The design is to 
include bollards. 

Water Supply. 

A town of 40 solidly built blocks, each block being 200 ft. wide 
and 400 ft. long and containing 32 4-story dwellings, is to be fur- 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



77 



nished with water from four non-flowing bored wells located outside 
of and one-quarter mile from one end of the town. 

The town is located in a flat country, and is laid out in a 
rectangle four blocks wide and ten blocks long, with streets 60 ft. 
wide. 

Design and lay out a complete water system from the wells to 
fire-plugs and house connections. 

Sewer System. 

A tidal river flows beside one of the long sides of a town. The 
surface of the land is 2 ft. above extreme high water and 5 ft. above 
mean low water, the mean range of tide being 18 in. Design a sep- 
arate system of sewers for the above-described town and include 
house connections. 

Strains in Structures. 

% The accompanying sketch shows the outline of columns and roof 
trusses of a steel-frame mill building 47 ft. long, to be erected in 
Washington, D. C. It is to have double doors in the ends, single 
doors and box-frame windows in the sides; its roof and sides to be 
covered with No. 22 corrugated galvanized steel. The columns are 
to be bolted down to concrete pedestals in the ordinary way, and are 
continuous from ground to top chord of trusses. 




Determine the frame for a proper dead load and snow load com- 
bined, and for a wind load of 30 lb. per sq. ft. against a vertical 
plane, paying special attention to knee braces and columns. Show 
the purlins, side framing, etc., and show main details. Solve graph- 
ically and find stresses at one section analytically. 



Crane. 

An electric traveling crane is to be installed in a new shop (not 
yet built), of which the span between outside flanges of columns is 
50 ft. The capacity of the crane is to be 30 tons. Sketch out the 
arrangement of the crane as regards general details as to its con- 



78 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

struction and the design of the building as affected by the installa- 
tion of the crane. 

Briefly outline the calculations necessary to the design of the 
crane girders, defining the position of the load for the various maxi- 
mum stresses. 

Chimney. 

Using free-hand sketches, design a round brick chimney for a 
plant of 1 200 HP, on a good clay stratum. 

Determine the center of pressure and direction of the resultant 
of forces, using a horizontal wind-pressure of 30 lb. per sq. ft. and 
the usual weight per cubic foot for brick masonry. 



Electric Machinery. 

1. Give a diagram of a six-pole compound-wound, direct-current 
electric generator. 

2. Give switchboard instruments and connections for two gen- 
erators and six feeder circuits. 

3. Describe the wiring of a three-wire system to use 110-volt 
lamps and 220-volt motors. 

4. Describe open and enclosed arc lamps; state which is more 
economical and give the reasons. 

5. In ordinary machine-shop practice, where there are traveling 
cranes, would you use direct-current or alternating-current ma- 
chines? Why? What are the principal conditions for best use of 
alternating-current power plants? 



UNITED STATES NAVY. * 79 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FOR CANDIDATES EOR THE 
POSITION OF CIVIL ENGINEER, U. S. NAVY * 

The grade of Civil Engineer in the United States Navy is now 
full, and vacancies which may occur in the future will be filled by 
promotion from the grade of Assistant Civil Engineer. At present 
there are no vacancies in the grade of Assistant Civil Engineer. 
The last Congress, however, passed a law authorizing the appoint- 
ment of three Assistant Civil Engineers each year imtil the full 
number of twelve is reached. Under the provision of this law, there 
will be three vacancies in the grade on Jan. 1, 1904. An examination 
will probably take place next November or December, for the pur- 
pose of receiving eligibles for appointment immediately after Jan. 
1, 1904. A vacancy in the corps will occur as the result of retire- 
ment in March, 1904, and should a sufficient number of candidates 
pass the examination in November or December, it is probable that 
this vacancy will be filled by appointment from that list of pligibles. 
As it is likely that some of our readers may wish to take this exami- 
nation, we have secured from Admiral Mordecai T. Endicott, Chief 
of Bureau of Yards and Docks, Navy Department, and publish 
herewith the questions submitted to candidates at the last examina- 
tion. These same questions will not, of course, be asked in the 
coming examination, but they may prove helpful to prospective can- 
didates as a general index of the character of the examination to 
which they will be subjected. 

To repeat information which we have already given. Assistant 
Civil Engineers will enter the corps with the pay of $1 800 per 
annum, which at the end of five years will be increased to $2 100. 
Assistant Civil Engineers, as well as Civil Engineers, are regularly 
commissioned officers in the U. S. Navy, subject to all the provi- 
sions of law relating to such officers, namely: retirement on three- 
quarters pay upon arriving at the age of 62, or if disabled in the line 
of duty; pension to family in the case of death in the line of duty, 
etc. It may also be noted that candidates who think of taking the 
coming examination should have the question of their health and 
physical soundness definitely determined by a reputable physician 
before subjecting themselves to the time and expense incident to 
appearance before the examining board. The medical examination 
required by the orders of the department is rigorous, and in the last 
examination numbers of young men were disqualified by the Medi- 
cal Board. The questions asked at the last examination were as 
follows : 

English Grammar and Composition. 

1. The papers of the candidates will be marked for this question. 

2. State in not less than 500 words whether in your opinion it 



* From Engineering News, August 13, 1903. 



80 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

should or should not be the policy of the United States to increase 
the number of its foreign naval stations and why. 

3. Correct, in the body of the sentence the following, where 
necessary. 

(a) Though John, George and myself were there, the sentiment 
of the meeting were so strongly in opposition against our ideas that 
we could do nothing for our cause. 

(h) The formula for these circulations are so intricate as to 
render the results extremely liable to inaccuracies. 

(c) The indices of these books are objected to on the ground 
that their inaccuracy and incompleteness renders them almost wholly 
useless. 

(d) Even when given work that they should be used to, neither 
the blacksmith or his helper were able to show their ability. 

(e) They, who so often rail at fortune, are the very ones, who, 
given the opportunity, never betters their condition. 

(f) It has occurred to Henry and myself that, though the data 
is not complete, we could get the result by interpolation. 

(g) It is they who make the most mistakes who consider them- 
selves nearest perfection. 

(h) I wish I was able to go but I will not have the time to. 
(i) Should either John or I be invited we will have to go. 
(j) Gents will be allowed to smoke on the four rear seats only. 

4. Define the following: Metonymy, allegory, metaphor, dactyl, 
tautology. Illustrate by examiDles. 

5. Give the present indicative, present infinitive, past indicative 
and perfect participle of the following: Were, lost, loosen, bat, bit, 
bid, crow% went, lean, slink. 

Arithmetic. 

1. It is desired to use the same panel length in the construction 
of three buildings whose dimensions are to be as follows: 283 ft. 9 
in. by 50 ft., 132 ft. 5 in. by 50 ft., and 189 ft. 2 in. by 50 ft. What 
is the greatest length that can be adopted? 

2. If eight excavators dig a ditch 4 ft. wide, 10 ft. deep and 200 
yds. long in 50 days of 10 hours each, how many nights of 7 hours 
each will four excavators require to dig a ditch 3 ft. wide, 8 ft. deep 
and 500 ft. long, assuming the difficulty of working at night to be 
one-seventh greater than by day and the hardness of the ground in 
the smaller ditch to that in the larger ditch as 6 is to 5 ? 

3. The market quotation for Hemlock, Yellow Pine, White Pine, 
and Oak are $20, $30, $72 and $80 per M., respectively. The total 
cost of a certain job is $7 200, of which Q0% is for lumber. Of the 
total cost of the lumber, 18% is oak, 12 by 14 in.; 28% is white pine. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 81 

1 by 4 in.; 34% is yellow pine, 6 by 10 in., and the remainder hem- 
lock, 2-i by 8 in. Find the number of lineal feet of each. 

4. Find the sixth root of 2749.865307480007 to three decimal 
places. 

5. A contractor buys cement at 43 cts. per bag, sand at 52 cts. per 
en. yd., and broken stone at $1.10 per cu. yd. If the bulk of 7 
bags of cement is 8 cu. ft. and the voids in the sand and stone 
are 35% and 42% of their respective bulks, find the value of the 
material used in making 67 cu. yds. of concrete of 1 : 2^ : 5 mixture, 
allowing 5% for waste. 

Geometry. 

1. What is the measure of the angles formed by two chords inter- 
secting within the circumference of a circle ? Prove the proposition. 

2. What is the area in square feet of a quadrilateral circum- 
scribed about a circle whose radius is 48 ft., if the perimeter of the 
quadrilateral is 400 ft. ? 

3. The volume of a certain cone of revolution is 1 200 cu. in. and 
its altitude is 26| in. What is the volume of the rectangular prism 
whose base is circumscribed about the base of the cone and whose 
altitude is that of the cone ? 

4. A regular hexagonal pyramid is circumscribed about a circular 
base, the perimeter of the circle being 117.8 in. If the slant height 
of the pyramid is equal to the diameter of the circle, what is the 
lateral area of the pyramid ? 

5. The apothem of a regular pentagon is' 34.6 and a side is 50; 
find the perimeter and area of a regular pentagon, the apothem of 
which is 8. 

Algebra. 

3.-1. 1 i 

1. Multiply ah ' + 2rt ' — 35^ 

by 

1 1 _ 3 1 

-2 " 3 3 ^ 

2 1) — 4: a — Q a h 

2. Solve a/ 3 a; + 1 -- V 9 a: + 4 — V 2"cc — 1. 

3. Expand \/ l — 2x — 2x^. 

4. A and B run a mile race. In the first heat A gives B a start 
of 11 yards and beats him by 57 seconds ; in the second heat A gives 
B a start of 81 seconds and is beaten by 88 yards. In what time 
can each run a mile? 



82 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

5. A gives to B and C as much as each of them has; B gives 
to A and C as much as each of them has ; and C gives to A and B as 
much as each of them has; in the end each of them has $6. How 
much had each at first ? 

Trigoxometry. 

1. Prove that sin ox = 3 sin x — 4 sin^:c. 

3. Derive the trigonometrical functions of 30°. Give the values 
of the functions of 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°. 

2 

3. Prove that tan x -\- cot x = ~ — ?r~' 

' sm 2 X 

4. In any oblique triangle state and prove the relation of the 
sides and a function of the angles opposite and show how this is 
used to derive a formula for the solution of triangles in which a 
side and the adjacent angles are given. 

5. Given two sides and the included angle, derive a formula for 
use in obtaining the area of any oblique triangle. The angles being 
A, B, C, and the sides opposite a^ h, c, find the area when Zj = 20.25, 
c = 80.27 and .4 = 30°. 

Analytical Geometry. 

1. Given the general equation of the line 
Ax + 5^ + C = 
what are the values of the following: 
(a) The intercept on the axis of x. 
(h) The intercept on the axis of y. 

(c) The normal distance of the line from the origin. 

(d) The tangent of the angle the line makes with the axis of x. 

(e) If x4, Bj and C are all positive, in which quadrant does the 
normal lie ? 

(/) Wliat relation must exist between the constants for the nor- 
mal to lie in the first quadrant ? 

(g) li B and C are positive and A negative, in what quadrant 
does the normal lie? 

2. Pind the equation of the circle whose center is at the origin 
of co-ordinates, and which is tangent to the line 3y — 9x = 11. 

3. What is the equation of the chord of the circle x^ -\- y- = 136 
which passes through — 2, — 7, and is bisected at this point ? 

4. For what point of the parabola y- = 18.t is the ordinate equal 
to three times the abscissa? 

5. Find the length of the line 

V32/ + a;— 14V3 = 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 83 

intercej)ted by the co-ordinate axes. What angle does the line make 
with the axis of X ? 

Calculus. 

1. Find the first derivative of y with respect to x of 
{a) y = log (3a;2 + x) 
(h) y = x'^a'^ 



(c) 


y 


= 


sin 


3 X 


cos X 


(d) 


y 




tan 


X — 


- tan^ X 






sec 


*£C 


(p: 


\ 1/ 




fan 




X -\- a 



^ "^ * 1 — ax 

2. Find a quantity x, such that it shall exceed its cube by the 
greatest possible value. 



3. Integrate: 

ra r2 x rx y 
II I x^ yz ax ay z. 

J J X Jo 



4. A rectangular box, open at the top, with a square base, is to be 
constructed to contain 300 cu. in., what must be its dimensions to 
require the least material? 

5. Find the area included between the curve a'^y = x^ -\- ax^ 
and the axis of x, between the limits x =^ — a, and the origin. 



Surveying and Instruments. 

1. Describe in detail the work of measuring an accurate base line 
for a topographical survey covering 500 square miles. What instru- 
ments are required? 

2. State how you would organize, and the instruments with 
which you would equip, a party for running a preliminary survey 
for the location of a railroad line. Describe in detail the process 
of making the survey^ and the operations involved. 

3. Describe three methods of making a contour survey and ex- 
plain when each would be used. 

4. Name in proper order the principal adjustments of the tran- 
sit and describe how they are made. 

5. Sketch a longitudinal section through a Y-level, showing 
the principal parts, including the position and shape of the lenses. 

6. Give field adjustments for a Y-level. How would you use a 
level which is out of adjustment to get accurate elevations ? 



84 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



7. A tidal river, main channel 400 ft. wide, is to be dredged to a 
depth of 32 ft. at mean low water. It is proposed to pay for the 
work on the basis of place measurement. The exact location of the 
plane of mean low water is not yet known. A low sandy beach is 
parallel to channel. Describe how you would make all the necessary 
observations, and how you would make hydrographic survey where 
soundings and estimates must be made quickly and often. State 
method of making soundings, equipment needed, precautions neces- 
sary to secure accurate work, and number and position of men 
required. State what method you would use to determine whether 
any small, isolated rocks remain in channel on completion of work. 

8. On the sketch below (Fig. 1), the heavy line indicates the 
axial location of a ship canal which is to be 300 ft. wide on the bot- 
tom, side slopes 3 to 1, depth of water 30 ft., 20-ft. berms on each 
side 6 ft. above the water. Plot on the sketch the plan of the com- 
pleted cut, give a cross-section at A, B and C and figure the volume 
of excavation between A and C. 




Fig. 1. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 85 

9. (a) It is decided to establish a naval station in Great Harbor, 
Culebra (see chart). 

Indicate thus A on the chart, the location of primary triangula- 
tion stations for a survey of the harbor and adjacent region and 
connect them. Locate a suitable base and connect with the triangu- 
lation. 

(h) State how you would obtain complete tidal data concerning 
the port. 

(c) Make perspective sketch of harbor entrance and south shore 
of island from point marked A. 

(d) Make a paper location of a railroad from San Ildefonso to 
Ensenada Fulladora. 

(e) Plot the dangers to navigation given on the following sheet. 
[ (281) WEST IXDIES— CULEBEA ISLAND— GEEAT 

HAEBOR— ROCK EEPOETED.— Lieutenant C. M. Eahs, U. S. 
Navy, navigator of the U. S. S. "Olympia," reports the existence of a 
rock, with 18 ft. of water over it, outside of the Great Harbor, Cule- 
bra Island, which was discovered while surveying. The rock is located 
1270 yd. S. 12° 45' W. true (S. by W. i W. Mag.) from the house 
on the south beach of Punta Carenero, shown on U. S. Coast Sur- 
vey chart No. 913. 

(2025) POETO EICO— CLTLEBEA ISLAND— GEEAT HAR- 
BOE APPEOACH— GEOUPEE SHOAL— EOCK TO WEST- 
WAED. — Information has been received from Lieutenant C. M. 
Eahs, of the U. S. S. ''Olympia," that while surveying he found a 
coral head or rock, some 6 ft. sq., with only 13 ft. of water over it. 
Its position as taken from the small house on the south beach of 
Punta Carenero, is S. 3° W. true (S. f W. Mag.), distance 1060 
m. (1159 yd.). 

The rock lies right in the western channel leading along the reef 
toward Great Harbor. A buoy. No. 2J, has been placed about 10 ft. 
to the westward of the rock in T^- fathoms of water to mark its 
position.] 



Physics. 

1. Show by diagram the principle of the ordinary sextant. 

2. Show how the position of metacenter affects the stability of a 
floating body. 

3. What weight placed 2 ft. from the axis of a wheel will balance 
a weight of 18 lb. placed 4 in. from the axis, while the wheel is 
revolving ? 

4. Give three methods for the transmission of heat and illustrate 
by examples. 



86 UNITED STATES NAVY. 

5. Define specific gravity. Describe method of obtaining the 
specific gravity of Portland cement, and state what specific gravity 
you would expect to obtain. 

6. Explain the principle of the screw jack and illustrate by dia- 
gram the actual power required at the end of a 30-in. lever, to lift 
a weight of 10 tons, the pitch of the screw being five turns per inch. 
The diameter of the screw is 3i in. 

7. In what proportion must water at a temperature of 30° and 
linseed oil (specific heat 0.5) at a temperature of 50° be mixed so 
that there are 20 kilograms of the mixture at 40° ? 

8. What is the relation between the graduations on the three 
standard thermometers ? 

9. The diameter of a steam engine cylinder is 9 in.; the length 
of crank, 9 in.; the number of revolutions per minute, 110; the 
mean effective pressure of the steam, 35 lb. per sq. in. Find the 
indicated horse-power. 

10. Two bodies are let fall from the same point at an interval 
of two seconds. Find the distance between them after the first has 
fallen for six seconds. 



Geology. 

1. Name the principal rocks, describe their formation and com- 
position. What is the primary division of rocks ? 

2. What are anticlines; synclines; faults? What are the dip and 
strike of strata? What are unconformable strata? What is meant 
by metamorphic rocks and what are the principal ones ? What their 
composition? What is the most common sedimentary rock and what 
is its composition? 

3. What is a glacier? Describe general characteristics and name 
three well-known ones. 

4. Wliat is an iceberg and how formed? Upon what does the 
erosive power of a stream depend ? Explain what ratio governs its 
transporting power, y ^ 

5. Outline in briefest form present theories as to seismic and 
volcanic action. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



87 



Engineering Construction. 

1. Make a detail drawing of the roof truss and columns shown in 
Fig. 2. 



^ijV >f// Web Members, 




■8 Panels of 7'6"-eo'0''- 

Section Crane Track Oirder 
Fbri^e^^P^fa Web Pl.24'^" 






Column (Jf'-^ ^«^^^^ = 5f ^ lbs. 
Fig. 2. 



Allow 10 000 lb. per sq. in. shearing value on rivets. 

" 20 000 " " " " bearing value on rivets. 

250 " " '^ " pressure on bed plates. 

The maximum size of members which can be shipped is 11 ft. 
wide by 35 ft. long. Purlins to be 10 in., 15-lb. channels at each 
panel point. 

2. Make sketches showing construction of a concrete-steel floor 
and describe briefly the materials and construction. 

(1.) For a warehouse, floor teams to be 6 ft. on centers, load 
500 lb. per sq. ft. 

(2.) For an ofiice, floor beams as in (1), load 100 lb. per sq. ft., 
to have a wooden wearing surface and "suspended ceil- 
ing beneath. 

(3.) For a toilet room, floor resting directly on the ground. 

Make sketches of a terra-cotta floor end construction. 

3. Make sections showing the construction of a double-hung 
window in an office building with brick walls. Name all parts. 
Show construction of a 4-in. terra-cotta partition plastered both 
sides. Of a 2-in. solid-plaster partition and door frame. Wliat is 
the maximum height for which the above partitions should be used? 



Masonry and Foundations. 

1. Give the different kinds and qualities of brick used for ordi- 
nary building construction. State for what class of structures each 
is used and the method of laying each to secure the best results. 



°^ UNITED STATES NAVY. 

What precautions should be observed in laying brickwork in this 
vicinity as regards conditions of weather? When may lime mortar 
be used and when never used ? 

2. Give the usual methods employed to determine the bearing 
power of soils, making detailed sketches where necessary. 

3. Using an ordinary drop hammer weighing 3 000 lb., the leads 
being 60 ft. in length, state what formula you would use to deter- 
mine the bearing power of piles, discuss the formula, and discuss 
also the process of driving piles, stating which methods to employ 
and which to avoid in order to secure the best results, paying special 
attention to height of fall. 

4. A column of a certain tall building supports 360 tons total 
load. The material of the building site will support 1^ tons per sq. 
ft. safely, and piles cannot be used. Design a foundation in steel 
and concrete, with pedestal, for Z-bar column of 4"Zs 6 by |, 1 pi. 
8 by I, and 2 pis. 14 by |. The foundation is limited in length to 
20 ft. 

I = 795 for 18-in. I-beam, 
I = 609 " 15 
I = 268 " 12 
. I =- 122 " 10 
I = 57 " 8 

5. A masonry pier supporting a highway bridge is to be located 
in a stream at a point where the depth of water is 11 ft. at normal 
stage. The bottom is mud with hard clay at a depth of 40 ft. The 
roadway is 35 ft. above normal stage of water and the greatest 
recorded flood stage is 15 ft. Make sketch showing pier and founda- 
tion, also sketches of such auxiliary construction as may be em- 
ployed. Dimensions required. 

Mechanics. 

1. A column supports two crane girders 20 ft. and 24 ft. long 
respectively (Fig. 3). The rolling loads on these girders are as fol- 
lows and always have the same relative' order with respect to the 
spans. Find the maximum load on the column and the maximum 
shear at the end and centre of the 24-ft. span. 



8 



— IVI (U — 

1111 

k5&'-->K--- 6t7"--->K-.--7i? "--H . 
Girder I Qirder 

-... zo'o" - •>!<■ •^•^'<?- 

Fig. 3. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 89 

2. A beam inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 30° and 
carrying a uniform load of two tons per horizontal foot rests against 
a vertical wall at its upper end and is anchored to a pier at its lower 
end; the distance from face of wall to center of pier is 25 ft. If 
the pier is 10 ft. high and of square section, what must be its size 
to insure stability, the weight of masonry being 150 lb. per cu. ft. ? 

3. A certain arch is 2 ft. 6 in. deep at the keystone and has a rise 
of 5 ft. and a clear span of 60 ft. If the total uniform load, includ- 
ing the dead weight, is 2 000 lb. per sq. ft., find the pressure per 
square inch at the center, the reactions at the abutments and show 
the method of obtaining the line of pressures. 

4. A column 32 ft. high is securely anchored at the base and 
loaded with 150 000 lb. on top and 60 000 lb. 24 ft. above the base 
and 18 in. from the center line of the column in the plane of the 
web. If the column is an I-section, composed of a web plate 16 by ^ 
in., and four angles 6 by 3^ by -J in., with the 6-in. leg at right angles 
to the web, what is the maximum fiber stress in the column ? 

5. The top-chord panel of a roof truss, composed of two 6 by 3^ 
by ^--in. angles of 5-ft. clear span, has a direct compressive stress of 
98 000 lb. and supports a uniform beam load of 600 lb. per ft. of 
span. What is the combined stress per square inch? The I of the 
section is 33.2. 

6. A cone of revolution whose base is 10 in. diameter and alti- 
tude 15 in. is immersed, vertex down and base parallel to the surface 
of water. The base is 10 ft. below the surface. Find the pressure 
on the conical surface and the tendency of the body to rise to the 
surface. 

7. A concrete well is built in a reservoir. The height of the wall 
is 35 ft., the elevation of the outside water 30 ft., and the interior 
is pumped out to a depth of 8 ft. from the bottom. If the wall is 18 
in. thick, what is the pressure per square inch in the body of the wall 
at a depth of 30 ft. from its top ? Diameter of well = 40 ft. 

8. The weight of bituminous coal being 50 lb. per cu. ft. and its 
angle of repose 45°, design a wall to retain coal 18 ft. high, flush 
with its top. What modification must be made if the coal is piled at 
its natural slope, its toe being at the top of the wall ( 

9. Define the following : 

Moment of inertia. Modulus of elasticity. 

Center of percussion, Resilience, 

Radius of gyration, Factor of safety. 
Elastic limit. 



90 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



10. What weight " W" is necessary to balance the load of 5 000 
lb. (Fig. 4) ? 




5000 lbs. 



Fig. 4. 



Stresses in Structures. 
1. A train-shed roof is supported by trusses spaced 20 ft. on 
centers on an outline shown on accompanying sheet. The total load 
on the roof is 60 lb. per sq. ft. Find the stresses in the truss graph- 
ically and proportion the members. What unit stresses would you 
allow? Make a sketch showing arrangement and size of lateral 
bracing you would use for first four panels from outer end of shed. 
Show stresses on left half and sizes on right half of diagram 
(Fig. 5). 




^■ZFirn^.'WlSi^ 6 Panels ^I5'0"= ISO'O" •> 

CivC. of Columns 



Fig. 5. 



2. Find stresses in frame (Fig. 6) analytically. 




K J2\}"'--A 



Fig. 6. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



91 



3. Determine stresses in frame shown above (Fig. 7) for loading 
given. The column is a stiff member from the pin at the ground 
level to the bottom chord of the roof truss. 




4000. 



6> Panels ■S> 10'= bO'o" 



:Fm 



Pin- 



FiG. 7. 



Pavements. 

1. Specify all the materials and the finish of a granolithic side- 
walk. 

2. Sketch cross-section and describe materials and construction 
of a street 91 ft. between lines, laid out as follows: Double-track 
street railway in centre, 4 ft. 8 in. gage, 10 ft. 4 in. centers, paved 
with granite blocks; on each side of a track a roadway 18 ft. wide, 
paved with asphalt; gutters, 2 ft. wide each, of vitrified brick; 
granite curbs; cement sidewalks, 8 ft. wide; parking, 10 ft. wide. 
Indicate on the sketch the various sub-constructions in the street 
and their connections. 

3. What crown would you give to street paving? What mini- 
mum grade of gutters? What do you consider to be the limiting 
grades for asphalt paving, vitrified brick, granite block, macadam? 
Why? 



Materials of Construction. 

1. Write a specification for good building sand and for gravel 
for foundation concrete. Wliat should be the size of sand particles 
to make the strongest mortar? 

2. Write a specification for paving brick; describe tests that 
should be made on same. 

3. Why is open-hearth steel preferred to Bessemer for structural 
material? With open-hearth steel, would you prefer basic or acid 
for structural material? Why? * 

4. What is Rosendale cement? Describe its manufacture. What 
do you understand by Portland cement? Describe its manufacture. 



92 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



5. Write a specification for lime to be -used in the construction 
of a brick building. Specify the mixing of mortar for the above. 

6. What is the composition of commercial roofing plates of so- 
called tin? How are they made? How is the thickness of copper 
for roofing purposes specified? What are its advantages over tin or 
galvanized iron? 

7. Discuss rusting of steel and methods of preventing by' paint- 
ing. What paint would you use on sheet-steel roofs ? On corrugated 
steel sides ? On steel framework of buildings ? Why ? 

8. What kind, grade, and quality of wood would you spe<?ify for 
a timber wharf, above the tops of the piles? For a railroad trestle? 
For railroad ties ? For the floor of a shop ? For the floor of an office ? 
For a shingle roof ? For the frames and siding of a wooden build- 
ing? For the doors and windows of a dwelling? 

9. A circular pump well 30 ft. in diameter, with concrete bottom 
and sidewalls about 4 ft. thick, is to be made waterproof against a 
maximum head of water of 30 ft. Design and specify material and 
workmanship for waterproofing. 

10. Name the various kinds of glass manufactured and state the 
purposes for which generally used. 



Water- Works. 

1. A 12-in. pipe on a grade of 3 ft. per thousand is flowing half 
full. Assume a coefficient of friction, and find the discharge of the 
pipe per second. 

2. Write an outline specification for the laying of 16-in. cast-iron 
water main in this vicinity to carry a working pressure of 125 lb. 
Describe briefly the most important features to be looked after to 
secure the best results. Part of the main is laid in rock and part in 
very soft, wet ground. The thickness of the above pipe is | in. 
What is the stress per square inch in the metal ? 

3. A town of 40 000 inhabitants is to be supplied with water for 
domestic consumption at an average rate of 60 gal. per capita per 
diem. The water is furnished from a reservoir through a cast-iron 
pipe line 2 miles long to a center .of distribution in the town. 
Give the size of pipe necessary. The water level in reservoir is 200 
ft. above center of distribution and located on comparatively level 
ground. Sketch a section and give area of a square reservoir with 
concrete core wall and earth embankments to contain a 30 days' 
supply. Location of reservoir is in good sand and clay, mixed. 



UNITED STATES NAVY. 



93 



Eailways. 

1. What are the relations between frog number, throw, lead, gage, 
radius of curvature, etc., of a turn-out? Describe each, and give 
formula. What is the minimum radius of curvature you would use 
for Navy Yard work where standard-gage cars are to be shifted '^ 

2. Sketch a section through a steam railroad track suitable for 
permanent construction in a street paved with vitrified brick or 
granite blocks. 

3. Make a sketch plan of a set of crossing-frogs for standard- 
gage steam railroad tracks, the angle of the crossing being 60*^ and 
the traffic over the crossing being heavy and at considerable speed. 

4. Make a sketch of a spring-rail frog, and of a solid-filled, bolted 
frog. 

Sewers. 

1. Design the sewers as shown on the accompanying sketch (Fig. 
8), figuring the sizes, locating man-holes, catch-basins, etc. The river 
bank is at M. H. W. and the point A at 15 ft. above M. H. W. with 
uniform grade toward river. The sewer is of the separate type and 
the water consumption is to be figured at 100 gal. per capita, 
with 300 residents on each block. No provision for growth of city. 

2. What data are required for the design of a combined system 
of sewers and how would you proceed to calculate the conduits ? 

















1 














































><-4O0'0"-> 


X 
or 












































































llil — 















Fig. 



94 united states navy. 

Wharf. 

1. A timber pier 300 ft. long and 60 ft. wide is to be built pro- 
jecting into a tidal river vpith mud bottom, varying from mean low 
water at the shore to a depth of 18 ft. at M. L. W. at the outer end. 
After the construction is completed berths are to be dredged on both 
sides to a depth of 25 ft. at M. L. W. The height of the deck above 
M. L. W. is 14 ft. The test piles driven to determine the bearing 
power of the bottom showed a total penetration below M. L. W. of 
about 36 ft., bringing up with a penetration of 1 in. per blow of a 
2 800-lb. ram falling 20 ft. Design the wharf, showing neat free- 
hand sketches of the principal details. Make a complete bill of 
material and estimate the cost of all items to be purchased. 

Boilers. 

1. Design a battery of boilers of the return fire tubular type, to 
supply 500 HP. at a steam pressure of 100 lb. per sq. in. The grate- 
surface, area over the bridge-wall, flue area, and general dimensions 
cf chimney, all to be fully shown. 

2. What is the rate of coal consumption per horse-power for the 
boilers of problem 1 ? How much water is evaporated per pound of 
coal? What is the ratio of heating-surface to grate-surface? How 
much heating surface is required per horse-power? 

3. Give full details of a complete boiler test to determine effi- 
ciency. 

4. Describe briefly the several types of condensers in use. 



GENERAL APPENDIX IL 

CIVIL SEKVICE OF THE STATE OF NEW YOKK. 



GENEEAL INFORMATION.* 
Persons Who Will Not Be Examined. 

No person is eligible to a competitive examination — (a) who is 
not a resident and citizen of New York State (except as indicated 
below), (h) who is not within the age limitations prescribed for the 
examination for which he applies, (c) who is physically disqualified 
for the service which he seekfe, (d) who is addicted to the habitual 
use of intoxicating beverages to excess, (e) who has been dismissed 
from the public service for delinquency or misconduct within one 
year preceding the date of his application, (f) who has failed, after 
probation, to receive absolute appointment to the position for which 
he again applies, within one year from the date of the expiration of 
his probationary service, (g) who, within nine months has taken the 
same kind of examination for which he wishes again to apply, (h) 
who has made a false statement in his application or has been guilty 
of fraud or deceit in any manner connected with any application 
or examination under the Commission, or who has been guilty of 
crime or infamous or notoriously disgraceful conduct. 

Non-residents or non-citizens may be admitted to examination 
for the following positions : Attendants, nurses and orderlies in asy- 
lums and hospitals and similar institutions ;. also for positions as 
scientists, technical and trade instructors and positions requiring 
special training and education, provided that if the eligible list 
resulting from any examination held for such a position contains 
the names of three or more persons who are citizens and residents 
of New York State, such persons shall be preferred in certification 
to non-residents. 



Preliminary Requirements as to Education, Experience^ etc. 

No application for examination will be accepted unless the appli- 
cant satisfies all the preliminary requirements as indicated in the 
description of the particular examination. For professional posi- 
tions candidates will be required to have the licenses required by 
law for practice of their respective professions in the State of New 
York. For positions in the Regents' office candidates must be gradu- 
ates of a recognized high school or have an equivalent education, 

* Extracts from Manual of Examinations of the New York State Civil Service 
Commission. 



9& 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 



according to the standard of the Kegents. For positions involving a 
knowledge of any trade candidates will be required to present evi- 
dence of having served the customary apprenticeship at such trade. 



Where Examinations May Be Taken. 

The Commission is required by law to hold examinations for all 
positions, except those the examinations for which "require special 
tools, machinery, appliances or laboratory facilities," in the follow- 
ing cities and towns: 



Albany 

Amsterdam 

Auburn 

Binghamton 

Buffalo 

Elmira 



Ilornellsville 

Ithaca 

Jamestown 

Kingston 

Lockport 

Malone 



Newburg 

New York 

Ogdensburg 

Olean 

Plattsburg 

Poughkeepsie 



Rochester 
Syracuse 
IJtica 
Watertown. 



What Applicants Should Bring to Examination Room. 

Persons taking the stenographer and typewriter examinations 
must provide themselves with typewriting machines and stands or 
tables; those taking the bookkeeper, draftsman, or other examina- 
tions requiring the use of instruments, must furnish the instruments 
required. Candidates for draftsman or tracer must bring draft- 
ing-boards suitable for paper 84 by 14 in. All competitors must 
provide themselves with pens, penholders, pencils, erasers, ink 
and blotters. Competitors should not bring any paper for use in the 
examination room, as sufficient blank paper will be furnished for all 
purposes. 

Each applicant must present his notice of examination in order 
to be admitted to the examination. 

Change of Address. 

Applicants and eligibles must keep the Commission informed 
of any change of post-office address. -A failure to do so will be 
treated as the fault of the applicant or eligible, and may result in 
his losing an opportunity of examination or appointment. Requests 
to have the address changed should be made by letter, and should 
state whether the applicant has been examined or not. Such letter 
^should relate only to the change in address. 

Rules Governing Competitors in Examinations. 

The following is a copy of the rules which are given to each 
competitor at the beginning of every examination : 

1. You will find your examination number in the upper right 
hand corner of the declaration sheet which will be given you. Write 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 97 

tJiat number on each sheet of the examination. Fill out all hlanhs 
on question sheet before handing it in. 

2. See that each sheet received by you pertains to the kind of 
examination which you are taking, and take care that you do not 
omit any of the sheets. Competitors are held responsible for errors 
and omissions. 

3. Do not leave the room, if possible to avoid it, with a sheet 
before you unfinished, for if you do, the sheet will be taken up and 
will not be returned to you. Competitors are allowed to leave the 
examination room for luncheon on the completion of any sheet of 
questions after 12 o'clock. No additional allowance of time will be 
granted on account of such absence. 

4. Read carefully the printed instructions on each sheet before 
commencing work thereon. 

5. A question sheet spoiled by you cannot be exchanged for an- 
other of the same kind. 

6. Perform all work on each examination sheet with ink. 

7. Pencil and scratch paper furnished by the examiner may be 
used in preliminary work, except in spelling and verbal order exer- 
cises, which must be written with ink directly on the examination 
sheets from the dictation of the examiner. 

8. Use no scratch paper except that furnished by the examiner, 
and, on completing an examination sheet, hand him the scratch 
paper pertaining to that sheet. Have all your work complete on the 
examination sheet however, as the scratch paper is collected, not for 
consideration in the marking, but for destruction. 

9. No helps of any kind are allowed unless expressly stated to 
the contrary on the question sheet or in the instructions sent to 
candidates. Before the examination is commenced, hand to the 
examiner any written or printed matter that you may have which 
might, if used, aid you in your work. 

10. All conversation or communication between competitors dur- 
ing the examination is strictly prohibited. 

11. Do not copy or attempt to copy from the work of any com- 
petitor, or permit any competitor to copy from your work, or to 
read the examination sheets in your possession. 

12. All necessary explanations will be made to the whole class. 
Examiners are forbidden to explain the meaning of any question 



9,8 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 



or to make any remarks or suggestions that may assist in its 
solution. 

13. From one to three months may elapse before you are notified 
of your standing. 'No unnecessary delay will occur in marking 
your papers, and you are requested not to increase the labors of the 
Commission by making inquiries in regard to your standing, unless 
you have reason to believe that the notice to you has miscarried. 

14. Copies of examination papers or examination questions must 
be handed in with the answers and must not he taken from the room. 

[]Sr. B. — A violation by you of the instructions contained in 
paragraphs 9, 10 and 11 will be deemed sufficient cause for cancel- 
ing your papers. You are requested to report to the examiner any 
irregularity that may come under your notice during the exami- 
nation.] 

Method of Marking Examination Papers. 

The following method is observed in marking examination papers 
by the examining division of the Commission : 

After an examination is held, the papers are arranged by sheets 
or subjects and are forwarded under seal to the Commission. When 
they are reached in the order of marking, they are distributed by 
sheets to the examiners. Examiner A being given all of sheets 1, 
Examiner B all of sheets 2, Examiner C all of sheets 3, and so on. 
The work of each examiner is usually reviewed by another. When 
all of the papers of an examination have been marked, those of each 
competitor are then for the first time assembled or brought together, 
his general average is ascertained, his declaration envelope is opened, 
and the declaration sheet to which he has signed his name is 
attached to his examination papers. The identity of the competitor, 
therefore, is not disclosed until his papers have heen marked and 
reviewed and his general average determined. The only exception is 
in marking experience and education, Which is done upon the can- 
didate's sworn statement and the answers received to letters of 
inquiry sent by the Commission to former employers and others 
acquainted with the competitor. As the charges for specific errors 
are fixed by the rules for marking, it will be seen that absolute 
impartiality, accuracy and uniformity are secured in the work. 

Appeals from the markings are sometimes made by competitors, 
but the prospect of securing a higher average by such action is 
small. Errors on the part of. examiners in making charges are 
seldom found. 

The papers of all the competitors in an examination must be 
marked at the same time, and no competitor's papers will be made 
special or be marked in advance of others. 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 99 

EULES FOR MaRKIxXG EXAMINATION PaPERS. 

In subjects for which specific rules of marking are not prescribed, 
the examiner will usually prepare a scheme of marking for each 
question, so as to be able to explain his marks in case they are 
questioned. 

All examination papers shall be marked under the following 
rules : 

Mark every correct answer 100 

Mark every faulty answer according to its value on a scale of 100, 

or as specifically directed below, deduct the sum of the error 

marks of such answer from 100. 

When the question requires in the answer a specified number of 
states, countries, persons, places, locations, or things, the quotient 
arising from the division of 100 by the number of states, countries, 
etc., required shall be the credit to be given for each state, country, 
etc., correctly named. If a greater number is given in the answer 
than, is required, the additional number of states, countries, etc., 
shall be added to the number required by the question, and the 
quotient arising from the division of 100 by the number thus 
obtained shall be the credit to be given for each state, country, etc., 
correctly named. 

Rules for Marking Arithmetic. 

The examiner will prepare a scheme for marking each problem, 
giving proportional weights to the various steps or processes on the 
scale of 100. Charges for errors in computation in any step or 
process will not exceed the weight given such step or process. 
No credit will be given for a wrong process. 

For errors in work or operation, the following charges will be 
made : 

From 100 
deduct — 

1. For error in pointing off decimals in multiplication or 

division 25 

2. For error in omitting decimal point or in pointing off 

decimals in addition or subtraction 10 

3. For each evasion of a decimal or common fraction test 

in the solution of a problem 25 

4. For each error in computation, provided that in solu- 

tions where the possible maximum number of 
chargeable errors in computation is less than 10, a 
proportionate charge shall be made for each error. . 10 

5. For error in copying figures from printed question or 

from work, wrong result being obtained 10 

6. For error in copying figures from printed question or 

from work, right result being obtained 5 



100 NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 

7. For indicating wrong process, but performing correct 

process 5 

8. For each improper use of the symbol or designation 

% or ^ in connection with a decimal expression ... 10 

9. For each improper or incorrect designation of a partial 

or final result 5 

10. For failure to indicate the answer in problems by the 

letters "Ans.," or otherwise, when the answer is 
obscured by improper arrangement 5 

11. For each failure to use the sign $ or £, or any other 

monetary or commercial sign, or any sign by which 
the relations of quantities are expressed, when the 
use of such is required in the statement or solution 
of a problem 5 

12. For each error in denominate numbers in quantity 

of one denomination contained in a unit of a higher 
denomination 15 

13. For fractions in answers not reduced to lowest terms. . 5 to 10 

14. For an approximate result not sufficiently exact 5 to 10 

15. If, when work or operation in full is required, the 

correct answer is given, but no work is shown 40 

16. If, when work or operation in full is required, the 

process is indicated, but no work or only part of the 

work is shown 5 to 40 

17. For superfluous or irrelevant work not canceled 10 

18. For giving proof instead of solution, according to 

gravity of error 10 to 75 

19. For complex statement, process or method, right result 

being produced 10 

20. If, when work or operation in full is required, an 

approximate answer is given, but no work is shown 
or indicated, charge 40 for omission of work and 
deduct from 60 a proportionate charge for number 
of figures incorrect. 

EuLES FOR Marking Experience. 

In marking experience the following topics will be considered : 
Age. — The examiner will determine standard limits of age most 
desirable for the position in question. Candidates within those 
limits will receive the maximum allowance for age, and other candi- 
dates will be rated according to their variation from the standard 
adopted. 

Height and weight will be considered for positions requiring 
physical strength or perfection, charges being made for defect in 
height from the standard adopted and for any great variation in 
weight from the recognized standard weight for the height and age 
of candidate. 



NEW YORK STATE CRIL SERVICE. 101 

Education will be considered for positions reasonably requiring 
educational attainments above the common-school grade, and will 
be rated according to its value in the opinion of the examiner. 

Experience. — The rating for experience will be based on kind of 
work done, nature and length of employment, salary or compensa- 
tion, extent of supervision over others, and other facts called for in 
application and experience blanks. 

Letters of recommendation and certificates of character will be 
considered only when received in response to the inquiry or request 
of the Commission. Their effect on the rating of the candidate will 
depend on their contents and the extent to which they corroborate 
the candidate's own statements. 

Every fact called for in the experience statement is important 
to the examiner, and candidates cannot be too careful to state in 
detail all important facts of their history. 

Failure to satisfy any preliminary requirement of age, height, 
weight, education, or experience established for the examination in 
question will disqualify the candidate, and candidates who just 
satisfy the preliminary requirements will usually be given a mini- 
mum standing of 75 per cent. 



Prospect of Appoixtmext. 

Except as indicated in this paragraph, it is not possible to esti- 
mate the prospects of an eligible for appointment, and attempts to 
predict when names might be reached for certification would be 
certain to result in disappointment. The law requires examinations 
to be held, but the passing of an examination does not insure either 
certification or appointment. The conditions of appointment in the 
various branches of the service are such that nothing can help and 
nothing can hinder the certification of a name in the order of its 
standing on a register. As the highest possible mark is 100 and the 
lowest that gives eligibility is 75, it follows that the nearer a mark 
is to 100 the more likely it is that the person may be reached for 
certification within the period of eligibility. There are usually on 
the registers more eligibles having ordinary qualifications than are 
required for appointment. 

Eor the information of applicants the Commission mentions the 
following positions as those for which it has been unable to secure 
sufficient qualified eligibles: Apothecary; guard, Elmira Reforma- 
tory; physician;- trained nurse; woman officer, state charitable insti- 
tutions; stenographer, first and second grades, in state hospitals 
and institutions. Persons willing to accept such positions have 
excellent chance of appointment if successful in passing the exami- 
nation. 

Entrance to the service is usually in the lowest grades, the higher 
grades being filled generally by promotion. The prospect of promo- 



102 NEW YORK STATE CB'IL SERVICE. 

tion varies so much in the different departments that no specific 
information on the subject can be given. 

Promotion. 

Under the civil service rules, vacancies in higher grades are 
filled as far as practicable by promotion from lower grades. Persons 
desiring promotion from chainman to rodman, rodman to leveler or 
engineering draftsman, leveler or draftsman to assistant engineer, 
tracer to chainman or junior bridge draftsman, junior bridge drafts- 
man to bridge draftsman, bridge draftsman to bridge designer, 
should enter the regular, open, competitive examinations for the 
higher positions, provided they can satisfy the preliminary require- 
ments. If successful in such examinations they will be certified for 
appointment in preference to persons not in the service. Special 
examinations are held as required for promotion from assistant engi- 
neer to first assistant engineer ($7 a day). The position of resident 
engineer will be filled by promotion (upon examination) from first 
assistant engineer or by open competition. 

ENGINrEEKING STAFF OF THE STATE ENGINEEE. 

Exempt Positions. 

3 Deputies $4 000-$5 000 per annum. 

3 Division Engineers ". 3 600 " 

Competitive Positioxs. 

16 Pesident Engineers 2 400 per annum. 

1 Chief Bridge Designer 3 eSOO " 

1 Ass't Chief Bridge Designer 2 500 " 

5 Bridge Designers 1 500-1 800 " 

1 Mech. Engr. and Draftsman 1 500-1 800 " 

6 Bridge Draftsmen. 1 200-1 500 " 

3 Junior Bridge Draftsmen * 900-1 200 " 

5 Tracers 600- 720 

3 First Ass't Engineers 7.00 per day. 

85 Assistant Engineers 5.00- 6.00 " 

34 Levelers 4.50- 5.00 " 

27 Rodmen 3.50- 4.00 

36 Chainmen 2.50-3.00 

25 Civil Engineering Draftsmen....;. 4.00- 5.00 " 

6 Inspectors 4.00-4.50 

6 Foremen of Boring Parties . 3.50- 4.00 " 



NEW YORK STATE CR^IL SERVICE. 



103 



DESCEIPTIONS AND SPECIMEN QUESTIONS OF COM- 
PETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. 



CONSULTING SANITARY ENGINEER. 

State Department of Health. 

$3,000. 

The duties are the examination for approval of plans for water 
supply, sewer systems, disposal plants, etc., and other engineering 
work of the department. Candidates must have an experience of at 
least three years in sanitary engineering work, and no candidate 
will be accepted unless satisfactory experience of high grade is 
shown. Subjects of examination and relative weights: Sanitary 
engineering, 5 ; experience, 5. Time allowed, 8 hours. 

Examination^ May 12, 1906. 

1 and 2. Write an essay on the most important sanitary work 
with which you have been connected, not less than three, nor more 
than five pages in length. 

3. A city of 70 000 inhabitants is situated on a stream whose 
watershed is 200 square miles (above the city). One hundred miles 
distant, down stream, is another city, the water-supply of which is 
derived from the above stream. Discuss the methods of sewage 
treatment available for the city further up stream. 

4. Discuss the theory and efficiency of filtration. 

5. Discuss the methods by which preventable diseases are com- 
municated and the methods used to combat them. 

6. Discuss the legal aspects of the rights and responsibilities of. 
a municipality in the use of a stream for water-supply and drainage. 

7. State all the points that must be considered in the sanitary 
survey of a watershed. 

8. Discuss the interpretation of analyses of a water-supply. 



104 NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 

ASSISTANT ENGINEEK. 

$5 to $6 a day. 

Candidates must have had at least three years' practical expe- 
rience in civil engineering. Candidates v^ho have graduated from a 
school maintaining a standard satisfactory to the Commission will 
be credited with one year of the required experience. Subjects of 
examination and relative weights: Theoretical and practical ques- 
tions, including highway construction, strength of materials, canal 
and water-supply construction, hydraulics of canal and water-supply 
engineering, mechanics of engineering, specifications and estimates, 
topographic surveying and mapping, 10; experience and personal 
qualifications, 7; education, 3. Time allowed for the written exami- 
nation, 8 hours. For part of the examination candidates will be 
permitted to use any books of reference they care to bring to the 
examination. The books must be left with the examiner in charge 
until such portion of the examination is reached. 



(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEEVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Assistant Civil Engineer. 



Held at Date 

Time commenced 

Time finished Examination No, 



Directions: Time allowed for the whole examination, 8 hours. 
Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on this sheet. Do 
not. copy the question, but number the answers to correspond to the 
numbers of the questions. In the case of problems, all the work 
of solution must be given. Slide rules may be used to check re- 
sults. Logarithm tables will be furnished by the examiners ; no 
other books may be used in answering the questions of this sheet. 
Do not pass the tables to any other candidate, but return them to 
the examiner. Answer all of the following: 

1. Give brief specifications for concrete to be put into a con- 
crete arch, including proper mixing (by hand) and method of put- 
ting into place. In the field, how would you distinguish Portland 
from Rosendale cement? 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 105 

2. Describe how you would build the foundation for the above 
arch if (a) upon marshy land, (h) upon shale with a dip of 45 
degrees. 

3. What are the most important requirements for which pro- 
visions must be made in the construction of a macadam highway? 
Why is macadam in such general use in preference to other kinds 
of road? 

4. (a) How would you ordinarily decide whether a pile is suf- 
ficiently driven? (h) How would you prevent a pile from splitting 
at either end? (c) Suppose a pile were being driven into a river 
bottom and its penetration under a certain blow of the hammer 
ceased, what would you conclude if, under continued driving, the 
penetration was gradually resumed, and what would you do? 

5. Suppose the earth behind a stone retaining wall to be liable 
at times to become very wet; describe the methods that might be 
employed to reduce the danger of damage to the wall. To what 
damage is the wall made liable by such condition ? 

6. Suppose it is desired to make a survey for an accurate con- 
tour map of a tract of nearly level marsh land containing several 
hundred acres, in order to determine the best means of draining it. 
Describe in detail your method of making such survey, including 
organization of party, etc. 

7. A 24-in. sewer pipe is to be passed through a double-track 
railroad embankment for the purpose of draining the land on the 
upper side of the track. The top of the pipe is to be 4.5 ft. below 
the top of the track. Explain, using pencil sketches, how you would 
do this without interfering with traffic. 

8. A wooden beam has to support a uniformly distributed load 
of 200 lb. per linear foot, including its own weight, and also a load 
of 2 000 lb. at the center. If the span is 18 ft. and the depth of the 
beam is 14 in., what should be its width for an extreme fiber stress 
of 900 lb. ? 

9. A segmental stone arch has a rise of 5 ft. and span of 40 
ft. What will be the approximate horizontal thrust due to a load 
of 40 000 lb. at' the center? 

10. A derrick has a mast 30 ft. high; 5 ft. from its foot is fas- 
tened the boom 20 ft. long. The length of the tie from the end of 
the boom to the top of the mast is 15 ft. The mast is supported by 
two guy ropes fastened to its top; one of them is fastened 50 ft. 
from the foot of the mast and its horizontal projection makes 130° 



106 NEW YORK STATE CIVlh SERVICE. 

with the horizontal projection of the boom; the other is fastened 
40 ft. from the foot of the mast and its horizontal projection makes 
90° with that of the first guy. Find the stresses in the guys due to 
a live load of 5 tons on the derrick. 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SEEVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Assistant Civil Engineer. 

Directions: Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on 
this sheet. In answering the questions on this sheet, any books of 
reference may be used. When such books are used for formulas, 
tables of constants, etc., candidates will give the name of the book 
and the page referred to. Give computations in full. Answer all 
of the following: 

1. In order to find the amount of water flowing in a stream, a 
standard rectangular weir with shar^ iron edges, having a crest 28 
in. long is placed across the stream and the depth of the water is 
found to be 4.36 in. over the crest of the weir and the velocity of 
approach is found to be 0.25 ft. per second. The water from the 
weir is conducted down a planed board trough 36 in. wide, sloping 
45° a distance of 40 ft. Find the cu. ft. of water per second flowing 
over this weir. 

2. Find the horse-power developed at the foot of the trough in the 
above problem, making due allowance for the friction of the trough. 

3. A canal feeder in firm gravel and earth free from weeds and 
rock has a bottom width of 5 ft. and sides sloping 45°; the longi- 
tudinal slope of the bottom is 1 in 1 000, and the depth of the water 
is 5.5 ft. Find the flow in cu. ft. per second. What depth of water 
will double the flow? 

4. A stream having a surface width of 10 ft. flows through a 
small gorge in soft slate with sides arising from the banks of the 
stream and sloping 40° to the horizontal. The usual depth of the 
water is about 2 ft. Design a dam across this stream to give a center 
depth of 10 ft. and show that your design is stable against over- 
turning. 

5. Design the foundation for the above dam and give your cal- 
culations to determine the security of the dam against sliding or 
crushing of the foundation at the toe. The slate has a dip of 30° 
and a depth of 12 ft. overlying sandstone. 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 



107 



(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEKVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Assistant Civil Engineer and Leveler. 

(Note: Sheet No. 1 same for Ass't Engineer and Leveler, second 
sheets different.) 

Directions: Time allowed for the whole written examination, 
8 hours. Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on this 
sheet. Do not copy the questions, but number the answers to cor- 
respond to the number of the questions. In the case of problems, 
all the work of solution must be given. Slide rules may be used to 
check results. Logarithm tables will be furnished by the examiners ; 
no other books may be used in answering the questions of this 
sheet. Do not pass the tables to any other candidate, but return 
them to the examiner. Answer all of the following : 

1. Give in detail the best method of mixing Portland concrete 
"by hand." Give the reasons why Portland cement is generally pre- 
ferred to natural cements. 

2. Describe fully and in detail the proper method of preparing' 
the subgrade for a macadam highway (a) across a level, sandy farm, 
(fc) in a hilly and rocky country, (c) across a swampy country with 
a subsoil of clay. 

3. What are the most important requirements for which pro- 
vision must be made in the construction of a macadam highway? 

4. In the construction of a macadam highway, how would you 
prevent (a) "ravelling," (h) sinking of the stone into the subgrade, 
(c) rapid powdering or disintegration of the stone, (d) a muddy or 
dusty road? 

5. Explain in detail how you would take a series of accurate 
levels for determining the flow of water in a level country. How 
do you determine accurately the depth of the water over the crest of 
a weir? 

6. A beam 12 ft. long is held in a horizontal position, one end 
resting against a vertical wall; the other end, which is to sustain 
a weight of 600 lb., is supported by two guy ropes fastened at the 
top of the wall 16 ft. above the beam, one 5 ft. to the right and 
the other 6 ft. to the left of the beam, which is perpendicular to the 
wall. Eind the stress in the two guy ropes and the thrust of the 
beam against the wall. 



108 



NEW YORK STATE CI\ IL SERVICE. 



7. What is the theoretical horse-power that may be supplied by 
a waterfall 90 ft. high and 84 ft. wide when it delivers 16 cu. ft. 
of water per second for every foot of its width ? 

8. The waste-gate in a sluiceway is 4.75 ft. wide; the water on 
one side is 9 ft. 6 in. deep and on the other 3 ft. 3 in. deep. Find 
the amount and the position of the resultant water pressure on the 
gate. Find the theoretical velocity with which the water will begin 
to flow when the gate is raised six inches. 

9. What fall must be given a waterway 2 640 ft. long, 123 ft. 
wide at the top, 75 ft. wide at the bottom, 12 ft. deep, that it may 
convey 1800 ^u. ft. of water per second? (Take c = 88.) 

> 10. A masonry reservoir wall weighs 120 lb. per cu. ft. and is 
28 ft. high. It is 3.5 ft. thick at the top and has a front batter of 
i in 6. What should be the least back batter and thickness at the 
bottom in order that it may safely retain water level with the top? 

11. The following is a portion of a set of fiald notes for a stadia 
survey. One full space on the rod corresponded to a distance of 
100 ft. from the center of the instrument. - The elevation of the 
instrument station was 131.57 ft. You are required to calculate 
the corrected distance, the difference in elevation and the elevation 
as called for by the columns below. 

<n-^Ai^ Horizontal Vertical Corrected Eif. in ■R'loTTo+i/^Ti 

Stadia ^j,gjp ^gle Distance Elevation Elevation 

.04 84° 37' +8° V 

0.89 132 55 —1 33 

1.10 91 10 +3 12 

0.90 39 18 +4 52 

1.65 42 30 +3 22 

0.13 249 6 -f3 32 

0.40 308 24 4-9 35 

1.30 336 4 +4 57 

1.35 288 54 +3 23 

0.52 . 228 45 +3 53 

12. Plot to suitable scale the elevations you have determined in 
the above question and by them draw contour lines for each even 
foot of elevation. Do not erase the points plotted after drawing the 
contours. (If you are unable to calculate the elevations called for 
above, assume a reasonable set of elevations and plot as directed.) 



uew york state civil service. 109 

(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Assistant Civil Engineer. 

Directions: Answer questions on blank paper provided, not 
on this sheet. In answering the questions on this sheet, any books 
of reference may be used. When such books are used for formulas, 
tables of constants, etc., candidates will give the name of the book 
and the page referred to. Give computations in full. Answer all 
of the following: 

1. A stream of surface width 50 ft. and depth 4 ft. has side slopes 
1|- to 1. The sides and bottoms are of coarse gravel and pebbles with 
some large stone; the bed has a general fall of 0.5 per cent. Find 
the height of the submerged weir that will double the depth, taking 
into account the velocity of approach. 

2. Find the pressure of the stream against the weir in the above 
question and design the weir, illustrating by a cross-section diagram. 

3. How far can 100 horse-power be transmitted by a 3i-in. new, 
straight, smooth iron pipe, laid on a grade of 1 in 2 000, with a loss 
of head of 25%, under an effective pressure head of 750 lb. per 
sq. in. 

4. A dock wall, plumb at the rear with a face batter of 1 in 24 
is 20 ft. high and 9 ft. thick at the base (bottom of stream). The 
water in front varies in depth from 10 ft. to 18 ft. The masonry of 
the wall weighs 125 lb. per cu. ft., and it is :^ounded in earth weigh- 
ing 112 lb. per cu. ft., having an angle of repose of 32 degrees. 
Find the least depth of foundation required. 

5. A wall is to be 20 ft. high and 4 ft. thick at the top to retain 
earth with a surcharge of 10 ft., having a slope upward from the 
top of the wall of 1 to 1, the natural slope of the earth being 45 
degrees. What should be the thickness of the wall at the bottom and 
the batter, if the back is to be vertical? Take the weight of the 
masonry at 130 lb. and that of the earth at 120 lb. per cubic feet. 

6. Make an estimate of the total cost of excavating a ditch for a 
canal feeder, bottom width 5 ft., side slopes li to 1, depth 6 ft., 
length 2i miles, through country approximately level. The soil for 
most of the distance consists of 3 ft. of sand and gravel overlying 
stiff clay, but for -| mile the feeder will pass through a ledge of 
hard shale and slate that comes to the surface with a dip of 45 de- 
grees. The average overhaul is ^ mile and the time allowed for the 
work is 90 days. Give answer in detail. 



110 NEW YORK STATE CWlh SERVICE. 

One Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Promotion Examination for First Assistant Civil Engineer. 

Directions: You are required to answer six of the following 
questions. Give a full discussion of each question you choose to 
answer. You will be allowed to use any books of reference you 
choose, blue-prints, diagrams and slide-rules. Time allowed, 8 hours. 

1. Give the force required, method and approximate cost of mak- 
ing a survey for macadam road 7 miles long, 5 miles being over an 
existing country highway and 2 miles through unwooded farm 
lands, the survey over the latter to cover a strip 200 ft. wide; con- 
tour interval, 2 ft. 

2. Give the force required, method and approximate cost (a) 
of making a topographic survey of 20 miles of a river valley, the 
stream being 500 ft. wide, depth of water 8 ft. ; banks of the stream 
low, sloping up to high cliffs 1 000 ft. back from stream ; contour 
interval, 2 ft. (5) of taking soundings across stream every 1 000 ft. 

3. A concrete overflow dam is to be built in a rock gorge 800 
ft. wide; height of dam, 40 ft.; flood, 3 ft. deep on spillway. Draw 
free-hand, approximately to scale, a section of the dam, and give in 
detail the method used to determine its stability. 

4. Sketch and describe, giving reasons, the cross-section and 
foundation of a concrete retaining wall, 3 ft. wide on top; earth 
embankment on bank level with top; water 10 ft. deep, 1 ft. below 
top in front; foundation in compressible material. 

5. Sketch a cross-section of a macadam road in side-hill loca- 
tion, stone surface to be 14 ft. wide for medium traffic. Describe 
and give reasons. 

6. Describe a design and give a sketch of a coffer-dam resting 
on a bare rock foundation, to resist a head of 15 ft. of water. Give 
reason for design. 

7. Write a brief specification for building a macadam road, 
covering excavation, embankment and broken stone. How would 
you determine when (a) the foundation and (h) the broken stone 
has been sufficiently compacted? (c) How would you repair a trap- 
rock road when the surface has become raveled during dry weather, 
(d) when ruts have formed? 



NEW YORK STATE CRIL SERVICE. 



Ill 



8. If a plan for a bridge abutment showed it on a gravel foun- 
dation and you found quicksand in its place when you came to 
build, how would you proceed with the abutment ? 

9. What special precautions would you take in building a con- 
crete wall of large cross-section (a) in zero weather; (b) in hot 
weather? (c) What general precautions would you take to insure 
lirst-class workmanship at minimum expense? 

10. Write a brief specification, including material and method 
of bonding, for a canal embankment of earth, having a puddle-wall 
3 ft. thick running lengthwise of it. 

11. Show a sketch of the timber forms in which is to be built 
a concrete retaining wall 20 ft. high, 3 ft. thick at top, 9 ft. thick 
at base, giving dimensions and spacing of timbers. 

12. Describe several methods of constructing and finishing the 
exposed face of a concrete wall. State which in your opinion is the 
jjreferable method, and why. 



EXAMINATION FOE ASSISTANT ENGINEER. 

1. The following sections have been taken at distances of 50 ft. 
apart, showing deepening of a canal in rock work : 

Section 1 2 ,3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

Area, sq. ft 34 18 23 41 . . 8 16 43 13 17 5 

Using the prismoidal formula, compute the amount due the con- 
tractor, at $2.25 per cu. yd. 

2. The length A B oi one side of trapezoid being known, and the 
opposite angles ACB,BCD,CDA and A D B being measured, 
how would you proceed to obtain the length of the opposite side 
C D, by computation? 

3. Find the number of revolutions per minute of a driving pul- 
ley 3.5 ft. in diameter to transmit 6 HP., the difference in the pulls 
on the taut and slack sides of the belt being 150 lbs. 

4. Find the position of the center of gravity of a semi-circle. 

Make a drawing, in plan and elevation, of a cylinder with a 
circular base and show how you would find the true dimensions of 
a section made by a plane cutting the axis at an angle of 45°. 

6. Find the horse-power of an engine that will discharge 
10 000 000 gallons of water per day from a depth of 40 ft. and with 
a velocity of 2 ft. per second. 



112 



NEW YORK STATE CB'IL SERVICE. 



7. A foot bridge of span 24 ft., having three 8-ft. panels; length 
of vertical posts 3 ft., carries a load of 100 lbs. per sq. ft. Find the 
stresses in the several members, showing which are in compression 
and which in tension. 

8. Find the moment of inertia of a square plate about an edge. 
Also the radius of gjTaiion. 

9. Find the greatest allowable depth of water in a circular tank 
20 ft. in diameter if the pressure on the metal plates of which the 
tank is built is not to exceed 1 ton per sq. in. 

10. How do you estimate in pounds per square inch the water 
pressure corresponding to a given head expressed in feet? 

11. A creek is carried under a canal, through three flat-bottomed, 
semi-circular culverts, with a diameter of 10 ft. each. Owing to 
a deepening of the canal of one foot it becomes necessary to carry 
the creek through two rectangular culverts of equal width and each 
4 ft. high. What should be the width of each rectangular culvert 
in order to have the same aggregate carrying capacity as with the 
three semi-circular culverts, the grade remaining the same? 

12. A culvert having a slope of 1 in 100 must take the drain- 
age from 1,000 acres. How many cubic feet per second must be 
carried by the culvert, using the formula, 

4 

Q = c y \^ s A^, 

where 

Q = cubic feet per second reaching culvert. 
c = proportion of rainfall reaching culvert. 
y = rainfall per hour. 
• s = average slope of watershed in feet (per 1 000 ft. horizontal 

distance). 
. A = acres of watershed = 1 000 in this instance ? 
(Give values to c, y and s according .to your judgment of what 
they should be.) 



NEW YORK STATE CIS'IL SERVICE. H^ 

LEVELEK. 

$4.50 to $5 a day. 

Candidates must have had at least two years' practical experience 
in civil engineering. Candidates who have graduated in civil engi- 
neering from a school maintaining a standard satisfactory to the 
Commission will be credited with one year of the required ex- 
perience. Subjects of examination and relative weights : Theo- 
retical and practical questions, including mensuration and use of 
logarithms, plane trigonometry, topographical surveying, mapping 
and leveling, elementary mechanics and hydraulics, theory and use 
of rod, level and transit, and highway construction, 5; experience 
and personal qualifications, 3; education, 2. Time allowed for the 
written examination, 8 hours. Books of reference will be permitted 
as for assistant engineer, above. 



(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OE NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SEEYICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Leveler. 

Held at . Date 

Time commenced 

Time finished Examination No 

Directions: Time allowed for the whole written examination, 
8 hours. Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on this 
sheet. Number the answers to correspond with the numbers of the 
questions. In the case of problems, all the work of solution must be 
given. Slide-rules may be used to check results. Logarithm tables 
will be furnished by the examiners; no other books may be used in 
answering the questions of this sheet. Do not pass the tables to any 
other candidate, but return them to the examiner. Answer all of 
the following. 

1. Describe the chief differences between Portland and Rosendale 
(or natural) cement. Give in detail the best method of mixing 
Portland concrete "by hand." 

2. What are the most important requirements for which pro- 
vision must be made in the construction of a macadam highway? In 
what ways is macadam most likely to fail ? 

3. Write a brief set of specifications for the stone to be used in 
a macadam highway. 



114 



NEW YORK STATE CTVIh SERVICE. 



4. What materials make the best binder for a macadam road? 
Describe in detail the proper method of applying the binder. 

5. Describe in detail the "stadia" method of making- a topo- 
graphical survey. What are its advantages? 

6. The survey of the boundaries of a large tract of land is made 
with a transit and tape. Discuss the compensating and cumulative 
errors that are likely to occur and explain the precautions you would 
take to overcome or reduce the latter. 

7. The valve in the gate of a canal lock is 10 in. sq., and its 
center is 2 ft. below the water level on one side and 10 ft. below 
the water level on the other side. The valve and rod together weigh 
10 lb. The valve-rod is attached to a lever 15 in. from its fulcrum, 
and the force to open the valve is applied 40 in. from the fulcrum. 
If the coefficient of friction is .49, what force is required to open 
the valve ? 

8. M is accessible, but is hidden from N. N is inacessible, but 
can be seen from P and B. Find the distance from M to N, the fol- 
lowing additional data being given: 

Course MP = 368.25 ft., bearing N. 28° 42' W. 
PR = 465 ft., " S. 32° 10' W. 

BN " S. 89° 4' W. 

PN " S. 62° 15' W. 

9. A piece of 3 by 4 in. clear spruce lumber 13 ft. long is used as 
a lever with fulcrum 4 ft. from one end. What is the greatest load 
that may be applied at the other end before the beam breaks if the 
ultimate tensile strength of the timber is 10 000 lb. per sq. in. ? 

(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SEKVICE 
COMMISSION 

Examination for Leveler. 

Directions : In answering the questions on this sheet any books 
of reference may be used. When such books are used for formulas, 
tables of constants, etc., candidates will give the name of the book 
and the page referred to. Give computations in full. Answer all 
of the following: 

1. A pillar 14 ft. in height is to be built up of rolled I-beams and 
plates and is to support a total load of 30 tons. Using 6 as a factor 
of safety, design the pillar, illustrating with a free-hand, pencil, 
cross-section sketch, giving dimensions. 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 115 

2. A canal feeder in firm gravel and earth free from weeds and 
rock has a bottom width of 5 ft. and sides sloping 45°; the longi- 
tudinal slope of the bottom is 1 in 1 000, and the depth of the water 
is 5.5 ft. Find the flow in cubic feet per second. 

3. The wall of a canal lock is to be of limestone masonry 24 ft. 
in height above 2 ft. of concrete. The land on which it is to be 
built consists of 18 ft. of marsh and soft loam overlying clay. De- 
termine the size and number of piles per square yard required to 
support it. 

4. A triangular weir has sharp edges and sides sloping 45° with 
the vertical. Find the flow in cu. ft. per minute when the velocity 
of approach is and the head over the angle of the weir is 10 in. 



116 



NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SEKVICE 
COMMISSIOIsr. 

Examination for Leveler. 

Directions: Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on 
this sheet. In answering the questions on this sheet, any books 
of reference may be used. When such books are used for formulas, 
tables of constants, etc., candidates will give the name of the book 
and the page referred to. Give computations in full. Answer all 
of the following: 

1. In order to find the quantity of water conveyed by a ditch 3 
ft. wide a weir with a rectangular notch 2 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep, 
with sharp edges, is placed across the ditch, causing the water to 
have a depth of 2^ ft. above the bottom of the ditch and 8^ in. 
above the crest of the notch. Find the discharge in cubic feet per 
second. 

2. What depth and bottom width should be given the transverse 
profile of a canal feeder whose banks are of coarse gravel with a 
few weeds and slope at 40° to the horizontal, in order that it may 
conduct 75 cu. ft. of water per second with a mean velocity of 3 
ft. per second ? The feeder has a fall of 2 in 1 000. 

3. A canal in clean, coarse gravel is 20 ft. wide at the bottom 
and its side slopes are 14 to 1; it has a longitudinal slope or fall of 
1 in 360 and a depth of 8 ft. If a submerged weir 2 ft. high be 
built across the canal, what will be the increase in the depth of the 
water ? 

4. The horizontal section of a canal lock has an area of 12 150 
sq. ft., and the difference of level between the surfaces of the water 
in the lock and in the upper reach is 9 ft. Each of the two gates 
is to have one sluice or valve whose center is to be 20 ft. below the 
surface of the upper reach, and the water is to be leveled up in 2 
minutes 48 seconds. Determine the proper area of each valve. 

5. A cast-iron beam of rectangular section, 12 in. deep, 6 in. 
wide and 20 ft. long, carries, in addition to its own weight, a single 
load P ; the safe allowable tensile stress is 2 000 lb. per sq. in. Find 
the maximum allowable value of P when it is placed (a) at the 
middle point; (&) at 2 J ft. from one end. 

6. A hollow cast-iron pillar 12 ft. in height has to support a dead 
load of 35 000 lb. and a live load of 20 000 lb.; its internal diameter 
is 6i in. Find the required thickness of the metal, taking 6 as the 
factor of safety. 

1st Sheet same as Assistant Engineer (see ante). 



NEW YORK STATE CRIL SERVICE. 117 

EXAMINATION FOE LEYELEE. 

7^ 1. Give a form of level note book showing cuts necessary to lay 
a pipe having a slope of 0.88 to 100, the cut at station zero being 
10 ft.; assume 6 stations 25 ft. apart, the pipe rising from station 
zero. 

■^2. A grade of 1-270 is how much per 100? How much per mile? 

N ' 3. An ellipse has axes of 12 ft. and 6 ft. What is the radius of a 
circle having an area equal to that of the ellipse ? 

<4. Explain various practical methods of finding, graphically, or 
otherwise, the area of a figure with irregular curved lines as bound- 
aries. 

5. What effect will be produced on the derived heights of a series 
of bench marks, where a New York rod has been used having .002 
ft. worn off the lower end? 

-. 6. Construct a right-angled triangle being given the hypothe- 
nuse = 6 in. and the tangent of one of the angles = 0.5. 

7. In making a survey the angles A, B of a triangle ABC were 
found to be 10° 12' and 46° 36' and the side B C 500 ft. Compute 
the other sides. 

8. Make an estimate of the cost of a cubic yard of concrete, in 
which the cement costs 78 cts. per bbl., the sand costs $1 per cu. yd., 
the broken stone costs $1.35 per cu. yd., the water 10 cts. per 1 000 
gallons and f of a day's labor is required at $1.50 per day. Use 
quantities which you think should constitute the proper proportions 
of the different materials. 

~^9. Draw a plan and elevation of a cylinder with a circular base. 

-^10. A bridge 20 ft. long weighs 5 tons. A wagon weighing 1 ton 
is 6 ft. from one end of the bridge. Eind the total loads carried by 
the abutments, stating the amount carried by each. 

11. Express a discharge of 1 cu. ft. per second in gallons per 
minute. 

12. Compute by finding the latitudes and departures, the area of 
a field from the following notes : 

Station. Bearing. I^i^tance i- 

1 N. 52° E. 1.28 

2 S. 29° 45' E. 8.18 

3 S. 31° 45' W. 15.36 

4 N. 61° W. 14.48 



118 NEW YORK STATE CI\'IL SERVICE. 

RODMAN. 

$3.50 to $4 a day. 

Subjects of examination and relative weights: Theoretical and 
practical questions, including mensuration and use of logarithms, 
plane trigonometry, elementary surveying, leveling and mapping, 
theory and use of rod, level and transit, and highway construction, 
6; experience and personal qualifications, 1; education, 3. Time 
allowed for the written examination, 6 hours. 

(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Rodman. 

Time allowed for the written examination, two sheets, 6 hours. 
Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on this sheet. Lo- 
garithmic work and other computations must be shown in full. 
Slide-rules may be used to check results. Logarithm tables will 
be furnished by the examiners ; no other books may be used. Do not 
pass the tables to any other candidate, but return them to the ex- 
aminer. 

1. The following is a well-known formula for weir discharge: 

q = 3.33 (h — 0.2H) [(H + h) i— At]. 

Find by logarithms the value of q to three places of decimals 
when h = 5,H = 1.24 and h = .18. 

2. A sand bank is 15 ft. high; the top is in the form of a circle 
with a radius of 5 ft.; the bottom also is circular and measures 21 
ft. across. Find the number of cubic yards contained in the bank. 

3. In order to find the distance from A on one side of a hill to 
an inaccessible point W on the other side, a line 558 ft. long is run 
from A to B, and another 307 ft. long from B to C, from both of 
which W can be seen. The following angles are measured, 
A B W = 64:° 17', W B C = 7r 37', W C B = 75'' 54' 30''. Find 
the distance from A to W. 

4. A beam 12 ft. long rests across a narrow vertical wall at a 
point 3J ft. from one end. The longer segment of the beam sup- 
ports a weight of 64 lb. at its outer end and the beam is kept hori- 
zontal by a rope from the other end which is fastened to the wall 
3^ ft. from its top and the beam is kept from slipping by a cleat 
underneath it. Neglecting the weight of the beam, find the ten- 
sion in the rope and the vertical pressure upon the wall. 



NEW YORK STATE CRIL SERVICE. 



119 



Course. 


Bearing. 


Distance. 


A to B 


S. 69° 15' E. 


706 ft. 


B to C 


N. 37° 15' E. 


593 ft. 


C to D 


N. 39° 30' W. 


600 ft. 


D to E 


S. 57° 45' W. 


465 ft. 


E to A 


S. 30° 00' W. 


498 ft. 



5. From the following notes of the survey of a field, calculate 
the area in acres. 



■A 



6. It is required; using a steel tape, to measure with great ac- 
curacy the distance between two points about two miles apart; men- 
tion and describe in detail the precautions that should be taken. 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Rodman. 

7. Mention and describe three methods employed or precautions 
taken to keep the subgrade of a macadam road dry. Why is it im- 
portant that the subgrade be kept dry ? 

8. A trench for a canal feeder is^ to be dug, bottom 8 ft. wide with 
side slopes li horizontal to 1 vertical. Suppose levels have been 
taken on the centre line; explain in detail how you would set and 
mark the slope stakes. 

9. What is meant by "raveling" in a macadam road? Describe 
in detail the means that are employed to prevent and correct it. 

10. In a survey two tangents (or courses) intersect at stake 
112 + 45 and the deflection angle is 40° 30'. These tangents are 
to be connected by a 12° curve, which is to be located by offsets from 
the first tangent, the points to be determined for each 50 ft. of 
length. Find the first three offsets and the points on the tangent 
from which they are to be measured. 

11. Describe in detail the best method of mixing by hand con- 
crete for the foundation of a masonry retaining wall, and state 
the usual proportions of the ingredients. 

12. State in their proper order and explain in detail the adjust- 
ments of the engineer's transit. 

13. Plot the following stadia notes to about the scale 100 
ft. = 1 in., and from the points when plotted draw contour lines for 



120 



NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 



each even foot of elevation, 
drawing the contours. 



Do not erase the points plotted after 



izontj 


il ang-le. 


Distance. 


Elevation. 


36° 


34' 


79.68 


116.48 


39 


40 


159.36 


119.77 


83 


25 


99.40 


118.96 


156 


28 


45.91 


110.47 


147 


8 


65.93 


112.60 


126 


37 


185.26 


122.92 


103 


18 


175.65 


115.13 


88 


18 


199.60 


119.19 


61 


48 


220.56 


120.34 



NEW YORK STATE CR IL SERVICE. 



121 



(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEKYICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for the Position of Kodman. 

^ 1. Eind by logarithms the value of d to three decimal places from 
the f orm.ula : 

75 _ ^^ 0^ ^^^ 2; + 2) 

c^ s (m + cot z)^ sin z 
when q = 228 
m = 1.15 
2 = 52° 
c = 77. 
s = .0015 

2-3. From the following data find the distance from A to B 
correct to one decimal place. 





Bearing. 
^ %. 33° 41' E. 


Distance. 


A C 


195.4 ft. 


A D 


N. 75° 32' W. 


129.9 ft. 


B C 


S. 76° 0' E. 




B D 


S. 5° 47' E. 





4. Eind correct to one decimal place the number of cubic yards of 
sand in a bank having a level top 5 ft. wide and 20 ft. long in the 
shape of a rectangle, 15 ft. long, with semi-circular ends, if the 
bank is 12 ft. high and has a uniform slope on all sides of 1.5 
horizontal to 1 vertical. 

5. The following are from the field notes of a stadia survey in 
which the constant correction, h, for the instrument was 1.2 ft. 



Stat. No. 


Stadia Heading. 


Vert. Angle. 


1 


131.4 


— 2° 37' 


2 


168.4 


—18° 26' 



Eind the corrected distance and elevation for both observations 
by the accurate formulas : 

dist. = reading cos^ a -[- K cos a 

elev. = -J reading sin 2 a -\- K sin a 
and also by the approximate formulas: 

dist. = reading X cos a -\- K 
and elev. = reading X sin a 

and find the percentage of error in each case, due to the approxima- 
tion. / 



122 new york state crv'il service. 

(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE or NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for the Position of Rodman. 

6. State and explain in their proper order the five adjustments 
of the engineer's transit. 

7. Sketch carefully in pencil a profile and explain how it is used 
in establishing the grade for a highway and in estimating and 
balancing cuts and fills. 

8. What is meant by the "declination of the magnetic needle?" 
Describe the variations of the magnetic declination. In the field 
how would you determine the true north? Explain in detail. 

9. What is the use of a binder in a macadam road ? How should 
the binder be applied? What mistakes are sometimes made in 
applying the binder? 

10. Discuss the proper size, shape and quality of stone to be 
used in the construction of a macadam road. Why are these re- 
quirements of the stone important? 

- 11. What is meant by telford in macadam road construction? 
When should telford be used? 

12. What will probably result if in the construction of a mac- 
adam road the following are allowed: (a) roots and sods in the sub- 
grade; (h) poorly drained subgrade; (c) insufficiently rolled sub- 
grade; (d) lack of crown to road; (e) soft and hard stones used to- 
gether in the road? 



EXAMINATION FOR RODMEN. 

In this and the examinations for Leveler and Assistant Engi- 
neer below, the work of computation must be shown. (Books of 
tables are furnished by the Board for the use of the candidates and 
no other books are to be used.) 

1. Divide § by tV- 

2. Multiply 0.3642 by 0.0072. 

3. Extract the square root of 0.00000. 

4. Reduce 325° 46' 23'' to seconds. 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 123 

5. Find eleven times the sum of 23° 00' less 10'^ and 0° 02i' less 
57''. 

\ 6. Having the area of a circle, how would you find its diameter? 

7. Having one diameter and the area of an ellipse, how would 
you find the other diameter? 

8. Find the values of x and y from the equations: 

X2 -^ y2 ^ 25 

X -\- y = 7 

9. Wiat is the length in rods of the side of a square which con- 
tains 59| acres? 

10. If the grade of a railroad is 73 ft. in a mile, how much is it 
in each 100 ft.? 

11. A distance of 5 280 ft. has been measured on an even incline 
of 3 to 100, what is the correct horizontal distance? 

12. A tank measures 7 ft. 9 in. long by 6 ft. 4 in. wide by 8 ft. 4 
in. deep. If water flows into this tank at the rate of 1 gal. in 3 
seconds, how long a time will it take to fill the tank, and what will 
be the entire pressure on the bottom of the tank ? 

13. An earth embankment measures, in embankment, 1 693 cu. 
yd.; the material shrinks in embankment 6%. How much would it 
have measured in the original bank from which it was taken ? 

14. A barn is 40 ft. wide. The pitch of the roof is 45° ; find the 
length of the rafters. 

15. Give the approximate weights of 1 gal, water, 1 cu. ft. water, 
1 cu. ft. cast iron, 1 cu. ft. granite, 1 cu. ft. brick. 

/- 16. Taking a kilogram to be equivalent to 2.2 lb., find the num- 
ber of grams in 1 oz. 

17. A gravel bed has a surface of 6 acres and an average depth y V3 
of 6 ft. How many miles of road can be covered with this gravel 

to a width of 11 ft. and a depth of 6 in. ? 

18. Express a speed of 10 miles an hour in centimeters per 
second. 

19. In the Phoenix Iron Co.'s pocketbook it is stated that the 
specific gravity of cast iron is 7.2; what does this mean? 



124 NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 

CHAIRMAN. 

Minimuni age, 18 years. $2.50 to $3 a day. Subjects of examina- 
tion and relative weights: Arithmetic, mensuration and use of 
chain, 8 ; experience and education, 2. Time allowed for the written 
examination, 6 hours. 

1 Sheet. 

STATE or NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for the Position of Chainman. 

Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on this sheet. 

1. A wall 1 690 ft. long is to be built in 30 days, and it is found 
that 7 men in 14 days have completed only 490 ft. ; how many addi- 
tional men must be employed for the remainder of the time so that 
the wall may be completed in the required time? 

2. Find the cubic yards of masonry in a wall 88^ ft. long, 10 ft. 
high, 1 ft. 6 in. thick at the top, 3 ft. 6 in. thick at the bottom, with 
sides sloping uniformly from the top to the bottom. 

3. Two adjoining lots of city land 132 ft. deep contain respect- 
ively 31 sq. rd. 1124 sq. ft., and 35 sq. rd. 36 sq. ft. These two lots to- 
gether are to be redivided into five equal building lots. What will 
be the width in feet of each lot ? 

4. If the rainfall on a certain day was J in., how many gallons 
of water fell on a rectangular piece of land 22 rd. 9 ft. wide and i 
mile long? (1 gal. contains 231 cu. in.) 

, 5. What is the length of an arc of 30° in a circle whose diameter 
is 18 ft.? (Give answer to 3 decimal places.) (The circumference 
is 3.1416 times the diameter.) 

6. (a) If you were sent to make a chain survey of a piece of 
rough meadow land what tools or instruments would you need to 
take with you? (h) Explain carefully and in detail how you would 
begin the work and how proceed with the measurement of the first 
course? (c) How would you keep the measurement always in a 
straight line with the points from which and to which you are 
chaining ? 

7. Suppose that you have arrived at a corner or angle in the 
meadow and have with you neither transit nor surveyor's compass, 
how would you measure the angle in the line you are chaining so 
that a map could be made from the measurements and notes you 
are taking? 



NEW YORK STATE CI\IL SERVICE. 125 

8. (a) How would you proceed if your line crosses a broad gully 
very steep on one side. Explain carefully and in detail, (h) Sup- 
pose that your line passes over a hillock that shuts out from view 
the rod toward which you are chaining; how would you overcome 
the difficulty? (c) How would you proceed if a large tree stood in 
the way of the line you were chaining? 

9. (a) What would you do if a 100-ft. length, in your measure- 
ment, should end in the middle of a brook that flows swiftly over 
a smooth stone bottom? (h) What would you do if your line crossed 
a bed of quicksand or a deep marsh more than a chain length 
across? Explain carefully. 

10. (a) How would you lay out a line at right angles to the 
course you have just measured? (h) Having finished your survey, 
how would you fold your chain? 

11. If your 100-ft. chain is -| in. too short what is the true 
length of a line that you have measured and recorded as 2 416.5 ft. 
in length? 

12. Have you had any experience as chainman or assistant in a 
survey? If so describe in detail, giving time, place and length of 
service. What experience or other education have you had that 
you consider qualifies you for duties of chainman? 



126 NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 



(One Sheet.) 



STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEKVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for the Position of Chainman. 

Directions: Answer questions on blank paper provided, not 
on this sheet. 

N. B. — In solving problems the entire process and entire com- 
putation must be given on the answer sheet handed in. Mark the 
answer to each problem: "Ans." 

1. The sides of a triangular field, one of whose angles is a right 
angle, are respectively 36, 48 and 60 rods; how much is it worth at 
$75 an acre? (160 sq. rd. equal 1 acre.) 

2. If 8 yd. of cloth If yd. wide cost $30, what will be the cost of 
14| yd. of cloth of the same quality, 21 yd. wide ? 

3. A line was measured and recorded as 1 mi. 60 rd. 2 ft. in 
leng-th. It was afterwards determined that the 100-ft. chain, with 
which the line was measured, was .7 in. too long; what was the 
true length of the line? 

4. Eind the cost of 60 boards, each 16 ft. long, 8 in. wide and 
li" in. thick, at 21 cents per ft., board measure. 

5. A railroad train ran 56.3 miles in the first hour, 62.34 miles 
in the second, 59.247 miles in the third, and 60.7304 miles in the 
fourth. Eind the average rate of speed per hour. 

6. Take .794569376 from 15.6000304. 

7. If the steel of which a tape is made expands .00001082 of its 
length for each degree increase of temperature, what will be the 
length of a steel tape at 43.5 degrees if its length at degrees is 
99.897 feet? 

8. A rectangular field contains 1^^ acres; what is its length if 
its width is 175.25 ft.? (One acre equals 43 560 sq. ft.) 

9. A rectangular field 7^ times as long as it is wide contains 300 
acres. What is the distance around the field? 

10. Describe in detail how two chainmen using chain and pins 
would measure the exact distance between two fixed points across 
e. field which is level or nearly so. 

11. How are angles measured by use of the chain alone? 



NEW YORK STATE CI\'IL SERVICE. 127 

12. Describe a good method of taking offsets with a chain in 
order to pass obstructions, such as buildings or large trees. Use 
diagram to illustrate your answer. 

13. How could you lay off on the ground an angle of 60° by 
means of the chain alone? An angle of 90 degrees? 

14. What are the principal sources of error in chain measure- 
ments ? 

15. What advantages has the steel tape over the chain for accur- 
ate measurements? 

EXAMINATION FOR CHAINMAN. 

1. What is the length of a surveyor's chain? 

2. How many feet are there in a quarter of a chain? 

3. Add 5i, 3J and 71. 

4. Divide 5 280 by 66. 

5. Make a sketch showing the points of the compass. 

6. Find the number of cubic feet capacity of a box whose inner 
dimensions are length 16 in., breadth 16 in., and depth 13.5 in. 

7. If a tape line is divided into feet and tenths, how many tenths 
will there be in 15i ft.? 

8. What will 42 642 briqks cost at $6.50 per 1000? 

9. Describe the process of measuring distances with a tape line 
or chain, on hilly ground. 

10. What are grade stakes and how are they driven? 



128 KEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 

ENGINEEKING DKAFTSMAK. 

$4 to $5 a day. 

Subjects of examination and relative vs^eights: Practical and 
theoretical questions, including mensuration and the solution of 
plane triangle, use of logarithms, free-hand lettering, reduction of 
field notes and plotting, mapping, 7; experience and education, 3. 
Time allowed for the written examination, 8 hours. 



SPECIMEN QUESTIONS. 

Directions: The work of computation must be shown in full. 
Logarithm tables will be furnished by the examiners. 

1. Two straight roads meet at an angle of 58-^ degrees. Find 
the distance betwen a tree on one of the roads a half-mile from 
their point of meeting, and a flag-pole on the other road 3 640 it. 
from the same point. 

2-4. From the following bearings and distances, balance the sur- 
vey, plot to suitable scale and compute the area in acres by the 
method of co-ordinates: 

Station A N. 51° 50' E. Distance, 1,063 ft. 

Station B S. 29° 45' E. Distance, 410 ft. 

Station C . S. 31° 44' W. Distance, 769 ft. 

Station D N. 61° 0' W. Distance, 713 ft. 

Letter the bearings and distances on your ^ map in stump writing. 

5. Indicate the following by means of neat free-hand pen draw- 
ings, each to occupy a space 1 in. by 14 in.: (a) quarry-faced 
masonry; (h) brickwork in Fleriaish bond; (c) broken range ma- 
sonry; (d) forest with both evergreen and deciduous trees; (e) 
marsh with stream through it. 

6. Draft the following title in letters of three different sizes,, 
using stump or round writing or some other style of free-hand let- 
tering that 5^ou can do neatly and rapidly: "Plans for improving 
the highway between Buffalo and Albany, a distance of 310 miles, 
passing through Medina, Rochester, Clyde, Syracuse, Oneida, 
Whitesboro, Utica, Little Falls and Schenectady. Scale 1 in. = 
100 ft. 

7-8. Draw plan, elevation and cross-sections for a semi-circular 
arch-culvert, of 15 ft. span, under a highway 22 ft. wide, allowing 
2 ft. between the top of the arch and surface of road, with parapets 

2 ft. 6 in. wide, 3 ft. high. Design suitable wing-walls for a flood 

3 ft. deep. Supply all other needed data. 



NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 129 

9-10. Draw 5-ft. contour lines from the elevation points given 
on this sheet ; mark the elevations for each contour and indicate the 
probable location of streams. 

From the contour sheet as you have prepared it, draw on separate 
sheet two sections of the ground, one through the line N. S., the 
other through E. W. Indicate the vertical scale used. 



130 new york state cbil service. 

(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SEKVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Cwil Engineering Draftsman. 

Time allowed for whole examination, 8 hours. 

1-2. Draw 5-ft. contour lines (at 90, 95, 100 ft., etc.) from the 
elevation points given on this sheet; mark the elevation of each 
contour and indicate the probable location of streams. Ink in 
contours. 



Scor/e //n. = 


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CO 




























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55 






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NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 131 

3-4. Design an arch culvert with roadway 12 ft. wide with suit- 
able wing walls to occupy the location indicated by the red x's on 
the accompanying contour sheet. The elevation of the roadway over 
the culvert is to be 104. 

5. Draft the following title in letters of suitable sizes, using 
stump or some other style of free-hand lettering that you can do 
neatly and rapidly: 

"Section Map Showing Location of Culvert No. 3, Pierrepont 
Manor and Ellisburgh Road. Scale 1 in. = 10 ft." 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Civil Engineering Draftsman. 

Directions: Answer questions on ruled or drafting paper 
provided; the work of computation must be shown in full. Loga- 
rithm tables will be furnished by the examiner; no other books may 
be used. Do not pass the tables to any other candidate, but return 
them to the examiner. 

6-7. Plot the following stadia notes, after making the necessary 
correction, to the scale 1 in. = 40 ft. Distances must be correct 
to the nearest tenth of a foot; elevations and contours are not 
called for. The constant for the instrument is 1.2 ft. 

Observations at Station A. 

Stadia 

Shot No. reading. 

1 127.8 

2 199.5 

3 168.4 

4 131.0 

5 131.4 

6 161.8 

7 177.7 

8-9. Copy the accompanying map to the scale 1 in. equals 2 
miles, and in place of the letters, fill in the proper topographical 
signs to indicate: (a) water; (h) marsh with stream; (c) hops; 



Horizontal 




angle. 


Vertical angle. 


86° 29' 


— 0° 32' 


33° 41' 


— 9° 22' 


326° 32' 


—18° 26' 


284° 28' 


—11° 38' 


212° 50' 


— 2° 37' 


180° 3' 


0° 0' 


154° 27' 


+6° 7' 



132 



NEW YORK STATE CR^L SERVICE. 



(d) cliff; (e) hills with deciduous trees; (/) meadow; (g) fallow, 
or rough cleared land; (h) sand bar; (m) farm with buildings, etc. 




5ccr/e/^3Mi/e5 

10-11. Problem 6-7 gave the stadia shots from Station A of a 
survey. Station A is invisible from Station B. In order to locate 
Station B, the transit, set up at B, was turned back on the points 
numbered 1 and 2 of observations from *A and the following hori- 
i^ontal angles were read: 



"Shot No. 1." 128° 29' "Shot No. 2.' 

Find the distance and bearing of the course AB. 



104' 



NEW YORK STATE CIAIL SERVICE. 133 

BEIDGE DESIGNER. 

$1 500 to $1 800. 

Candidates must have had at least five years' practical ex- 
perience in drafting, designing and constructing structural steel 
and bridge work. Candidates who have graduated in civil engineer- 
ing from a school maintaining a standard satisfactory to the Com- 
mission will be credited with one year of the required experience. 
Subjects of examination and relative weights: Questions on graph- 
ical and analytical determination of stresses in simple highway 
trusses and plate girders, and design of plate girders, floor beams, 
truss members, foundations, bearings, etc., with drafting, 6; ex- 
I^erience, education and personal qualifications, 4. For part of the 
examination candidates may use tables and books of reference as 
desired. The Carnegie and Pencoyd handbooks are suggested. Time 
allowed for written examination, 8 hours. 



SPECIMEN QUESTIONS. 

, Theoretical and Practical Questions. 

1. Find the stresses analytically in a through skew Pratt truss 
of 7 panels, the axis of the truss making an angle of 60° with the 
abutments, the 5 middle panels being each 25 ft. long, and the end 
panels 30 ft. and 20 ft. respectively. Height 30 ft.; width 20 ft. 
in the clear. Dead load 1 000 lb., live load 4 000 lb. per lin. ft. 

2. The accompanying figure represents the half -truss for a bridge 
of 80-ft. span, depth at B and at center = 12 ft., depth at A= 6 ft. 
Find graphically the stresses in each member due to a load of 5 tons 
at each panel point, divided between two trusses. 

3. Find the stresses in a parabolic arch bridge of 10 panels; 
span 120 ft., rise 24 ft., hinged at both ends and at the middle 
joint. Dead load 1 000 lb., hve load 2 000 lb. per horizontal foot. 

4. Find the tension at the middle and ends of each cable of a 
suspension bridge of 200 ft. span. Dip of cables 80 ft., weight of 
roadways 4 ton per ft., live load i ton per ft. Show by a free-hand 
drawing how the cables should be anchored. 

5. The counterbalanced swing-bridge, shown below, is 16 ft. 
deep and wholly supported upon the turn-table at A and B; the 
dead weight is 650 lb. per lin. ft. The counterpoise is hung from 
C and D; find its weight, assuming that a portion of it is trans- 
mitted to A through B E, sufficient to make the reactions at A and 
B equal. 



134 NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 

6. The members of a bridge consist of 4 eyebars 4 in. by 1 1^ in. 
on one side of a panel point, 2 eyebars 4 in. by 1^ in. on the other 
side, the diagonals are ly^g- in. thick, half the post is I in., the ver- 
tical compression in the half post is 40 000 lb. for full loading; as- 
suming the unit stress at 10 000 lb. per sq. in., calculate the size 
of the pin required and pack the pin. 

7. Give a short description of the kind of floor system you con- 
sider best suited for city bridges subject to heavy loads. What is 
the usual allowance for clearance under city bridges ? 

8. How do you proportion expansion rollers ? 

9. If you were sent out to inspect and report on an existing 
structure, what are the principal points you would investigate and 
how would you proceed to do it? What are the principal points to 
be observed in painting a bridge ? 

10. A plate girder of 64 ft. span and 8 ft. depth carries a load 
of 2 tons per lin. ft. At any section the two flanges are of equal 
area and their combined area is equal to that of the web. Find 
the sectional area at the center of the girder so that the intensity 
of stress in the metal may not exceed 3 tons per sq. in. Design the 
girder and illustrate by carefully-made drawings. 



new york state cr'il service. 135 

(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEEVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Bridge Designer. 



Held at Date 

Time commenced 

Time finished Examination No . 



Answer questions on blank paper provided, not on this sheet. 
Logarithm tables will be furnished by the examiner, but no other 
books may be used in answering the questions of this sheet. Time 
allowed for the whole written examination, 8 hours. 

1. Discuss the arguments for and against the use of double and 
triple system trusses in railroad and highway bridge design. 

2. Calculate analytically the stresses in a double system through 
Warren truss, 125 ft. long and 18 ft. deep, of 10 panels each, 12.5 
ft. long, due to a uniform dead load (for each truss) of 800 lb. per 
lin. ft. Place results on a truss diagram. 

3. Determine . graphically the stresses in a through bridge truss 
of 7 panels each 27 ft. long, of the Pratt type, but with a broken 
upper chord, making the verticals respectively 29 ft., 35 ft., 38 ft., 
38 ft., 35 ft. and 29 ft., due to a dead load of 1200 lb. per lin. 
foot, of which 400 lb. is to be carried by the upper chord. 

4. A through Pratt truss has 9 panels each 24 ft. long and 32 ft. 
deep. 'The dead panel load is 2.4 tons on the upper chord and 5.6 
tons on the lower chord and the live panel load is 18 tons. Compute 
the maximum and minimum stresses in the fourth vertical and in 
the main and counter diagonals in the fourth panel. 

5. Design, making plan, elevation and section drawings for a 
bridge pier, including its foundation on soil consisting of 2 ft. of 
silt and 10 ft. of sand overlying hardpan ; the bottoms of the trusses, 
each 140 ft. long, are to be 35 ft. above the surface of the water, 
which is 9 ft. deep. By the proper conventional signs, indicate the 
materials of construction. 



136 



NEW YORK STATE CB'IL SERVICE. 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Bridge Designer. 

In answering the questions of tins sheet, any books of reference 
may be used. When formulas or constants are taken, give the book 
and page where they are found. 

6. Design a steel column 30 ft. high to sustain a dead load of 
120 tons and a live load of 100 tons, without external bracing. Make 
to scale diagram of its cross-section and give all required compu- 
tations. 

7. A floor beam of soft steel in a railroad bridge has a span of 
16 ft. and weighs 2 600 lb. Each stringer is 22 ft. long and weighs 
3 800 lb. The stringers are spaced 7 ft. apart. The track is to be 
taken at 450 lb. per lin. ft. The maximum floor beam reaction 

-due to the live load is 46 600 lb. The floor beam has a web tw ^^• 
thick and an effective depth of 38 in. or 39-| in. out to out. Com- 
pute the rivet spacing in the flanges. How many changes in rivet 
pitch would you adopt? Assume the proper working stresses. 

8. The accompanying figure represents a pier, square in plan, 
supporting the ends of two deck trusses, each 200 ft. long and 30 
ft. deep. The height of the pier is 50 ft. and is of three panels as 
shown. Ten sq. ft. of bridge surface and 10 sq. ft. of train surface 
per lin. ft. are subjected to a wind pressure of 40 lb. per sq. ft. 
The center of pressure for the bridge is 68 ft., and for the train 
86 ft. above the base of the pier. The wind produces also a hori- 
zontal pressure of 4 000 lb. at each of the intermediate panel points 
on the windward side of the pier. Width of pier, 17 ft. at top and 
33 ft. 8 in. at bottom. Dead load of bridge 1 600 lb. per Hn. ft. 
and live load 3 000 lb. per lin. ft= Draw a diagram giving the 
wind-stresses in all the members of the pier and indicate which are 
in compression and which in tension. 




NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 



137 



-^-<g-Ws--/^--->K--/<^-->|<- 20 



, A 




\^-Qi^.gi^ 






r^ 



9. The above diagram represents one of a pair of cantilevers that 
support a free Pratt truss of 5 panels each 8 ft. long and 7 ft. deep. 
The cantilever is made up of eight equilateral triangles of sides re- 
spectively 8 ft., 12 ft., 16 ft., 20 ft., 20 ft., 16 ft., 12 ft., and 8 ft., 
and a pier panel 11 ft. long and 19 ft. deep. Find the maximum 
stresses in the chords A B and B C, due to a live load of 600 lb. per 
lin. ft. per truss crossing the bridge. 

10. A deck plate girder bridge for a double-track railroad, span 
120 ft., effective depth 140 in., is to be designed in 10 panels or 
sections of equal length. Find the shear and required web-section 
in an end panel and the bending moment and required flange-section 
in the fourth panel from one end for one girder due to live loads 
composed of two standard engines, described below, followed by a 
uniform trainload of 3 600 lb. per lin. ft. Pilot wheel loads 18 000 
lb.; driver loads, 34 000 lb.; tender loads, 21000 lb.; from pilot 
wheel to driver, 8 ft. ; four drivers spaced 5 ft. apart ; drivers to 
tender 8 ft.; four tender wheels spaced 5 ft.; from tender to next 
engine, 8 ft. ; from second tender to train, 4 ft. 



138 NEW YORK STATE CR'IL SERVICE. 

BEIDGE DEAFTSMAN. 

$1 200 to $1 500. 

Candidates must have had at least three years' practical expe- 
rience in drafting on structural steel and bridge work. Candidates 
who have graduated in civil engineering from a school maintaining 
a standard satisfactory to the Commission will be credited with one 
year of the required experience. Subjects of examination and rela- 
tive weights: Questions on riveted joints, standard bridge details, 
roller bearings, conventional signs and drawings, 6; experience, edu- 
cation and personal qualifications, 4. For part of the examination 
candidates may use tables and books of reference as desired. Time 
allowed for written examination, 8 hours. 



(2 Sheets) Sheet !N"o. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVEL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

EXAMIXATIOM FOR B RIDGE DRAFTSMAN. 

Directions: Logarithm tables will be furnished by the exam- 
iner; no other books may be used in answering the questions of this 
sheet. Time allowed for the written examination, 8 hours. 

1. In some neat, suitable style of free-hand lettering, write the 
title, "Design and Specifications for a Double System Warren High- 
vvray Bridge, Span 128 ft." 

2. Find the web and chord stresses in .a through riveted Warren 
highway truss of 5 panels, each 20 ft. long and 15 ft. high, due to a 
dead load of 10 000 lb. per panel, 7 000 lb. of which is to be taken 
by the lower chord and 3 000 lb. by the upper chord. 

3. The above bridge is to have a width in the clear of 18 ft. and 
the live load is to be taken at 96 lb. per sq. ft. of fioor. Design the 
floor beams and stringers and show how they should be attached to 
the other members of the bridge. 

4. Design a suitable ornamental entrance for a through city 
highway bridge which shall be made of standard shapes or simple 
modifications and shall serve also as portal bracing. Make detail 
drawings, if necessary, to show how this shall be constructed. 



new york state cril service. 139 

(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEEVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Bridge Draftsman. 

In answering the questions of this sheet, any books of reference 
may be used. 

5. Design a deck plate girder, span 80 ft., depth 6 ft., which is 
to be one of two girders to support a highway span 18 ft. wide on 
which there may be a live load of 90 lb. per sq. ft. Make plan, ele- 
vation and section drawings to the scale 1 in. equals 4 ft., showing 
method of building up the girder, of attaching the lateral bracing, 
etc. 

6. Give in detail the calculations for the determination of the 
flange area, allowance for rivets and numbers of rivets near the 
center of the above plate girder. 

7. In a riveted Pratt truss of 9 panels, each 16 ft. long and IS 
ft. deep, the following maximum stresses have been determined in 
tons, + meaning tension, — meaning compression. The stresses in 
the first five panels are, upper chord — 73.2, — 94.2, — 104.7, — 
104.7; lower chord + 41.85, + 41.85, + 73.2, + 94.2, + 104.7; 
diagonals — 69.75, + 52.2, + 34.8," + 17.4, + 9.3 ; verticals + 9.9, 
— 32.1, — 18, — 4.05. Design the members that meet at the lower 
panel point 48 ft. from the abutment. Make, to suitable scale, de- 
tail drawings of the joint at that point. 

8. If the maximum allowable pressure in pounds p per linear in. 
of roller is 600 d, where d is the diameter of the roller, design the 
expansion rollers for a city highway span 120 ft. long with roadway 
18 ft. wide in the clear and sidewalk on each side 4i- ft. wide. The 
dead load is to be taken at 780 lb. per lin. ft. and the live load at 
90 lb. per sq. ft. of roadway, including sidewalks. 



140 new york state cr^l service. 

(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEKVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for the Position of Bridge Draftsman. 

Directions : Logarithm tables will be f iirnisbed by the examiner. 
Candidates may use the Pencoyd or Carnegie Handbooks, but no 
other books will be allowed. Time allowed, 8 hours. 

1. Calculate the stresses in the middle panel of a through riveted 
Pratt truss of 133 ft. span, 20 ft. depth and 7 panels, due to a dead 
load of 1 000 lb. per lin. ft., and a live load of 2J tons concen- 
trated at one end of the middle panel, the loads to be distributed 
equally between two trusses 20 ft. apart. 

2. Design the lower chord and one of the vertical members for 
the middle panel of the Pratt truss described in question (1), show- 
ing the connections at the panel-point. 

3. A Warren girder 80 ft. long is formed of equilateral tri- 
angles with sides 16 ft. long. Weights of 2, 3, 4 and 5 tons are 
concentrated, respectively, at the first, second, third and fourth 
apices along the upper chord. Determine the stresses in the diagonals 
due to these loads. 

4. A frame in the form of an inverted queen truss is composed 
of a horizontal top-beam 40 ft. long, two vertical struts 3 ft. long, 
and three tie-rods of which the middle one is horizontal and 15 ft. 
long, (a) Find the stresses produced in the several members when 
a single load of 6 000 lb. is concentrated at the head of each strut. 
(h) If a wheel loaded with 12 000 lb. travels over the top-beam what 
members must be introduced to prevent distortion? What are the 
maximum stresses to which these members will be subjected? 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SEEVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for the Position of Bridge Draftsman. 

5. The platform of a bridge for a clear span of 60 ft. is carried 
by 2 queen trusses 15 ft. deep; the upper horizontal member of each 
truss is 20 ft. long; the load upon the bridge is 50 lbs. per sq. ft. of 
platform, which is 12 ft. wide. Find the stresses in the several 
members. 



NEW YORK STATE Q,Vi\h SERVICE. 141 

6. Find graphically the stresses in a pony parabolic bow-string 
truss of 8 panels, 80 ft. span and 10 ft. rise, (a) for a dead load 
of 1000 lb. per lin. ft.; (?)) the maximum and minimum stresses 
in the diagonals in the third panel from one end due to a concen- 
trated load of 3 tons crossing the bridge. 

Y. Choose and sketch section of the end-post of a bridge to 
withstand a compression of 120 tons; length 28 ft., taking the unit 

stress from the following formula : P = 10 500 — 60 — , where I is 

r 

the length of member in inches and r is the radius of gyration in 

inches. 

8. Letter in some suitable style the title: "Design for a Steel 
Through Pratt Truss Highway Bridge, span 110 feet." 



142 NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 

JimiOK BEIDGE DRAFTSMAN. 

$900 to $1200. 

Minimum age, 20 years. Candidates must have had some prac- 
tical experience in mechanical or structural drafting. Subjects 
of examination and relative weights: Practical questions covering 
free-hand sketches of structural shapes and simple members built up 
of shapes, free-hand lettering, detail drawing, tracing and calcula- 
tion of weights, 8; experience and education, 2. Time allowed for 
the written examination, 8 hours. 



(^ Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Junior Bridge Draftsman. 

Time allowed, 8 hours. No books are needed, and none may be 
used. 

1. A column 24 ft. in height is made up of four 6|-in. Z-bars of 
3| in. face and i in. thickness, one plate 14 in. by 1 in. and four 
plates 20 in. by i in. Draw the cross-section of the .column, show- 
ing how you would build it up; also the elevation showing the 
rivet spacing. Calculate the weight of the column, if the metal 
weighs 495 lb. per cu. ft. 

2. To the column described above, a beam is to be attached, 
composed of two 12-in. I-beams (with 5-in. flanges) and plates. 
Make a detail drawing of the splices and connections. 

3. Make neat free-hand drawings of the standard "shapes" in 
which structural steel is furnished by the rolling mills, and give 
the proper name to each. Show five ways in which these are com- 
bined in building up beams and columns. 

4. In some neat, suitable style of free-hand lettering, write the 
title : "Detail sheet for Through Pratt Truss for a Highway Bridge, 
span 80 feet." 

5. A Warren girder 80 ft. long is formed of equilateral triangles, 
with sides 16 ft. long. Weights of 2, 3, 4 and 5 tons are concen- 
trated, respectively, at the first, second, third and fourth apices 
along the upper chord. Determine the reactions of the abutments 
and the bending moment at the center due to these loads. 



new york state cril service. 143 

(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Junior Bridge Draftsman. 

6. Make plan and elevation drawings for a bridge pier 24 ft. 
high above the mean water surface, 32 ft, long and 6 ft. wide at the 
top, with a batter of 1 in. to 1 ft. on each side. The down-stream 
end has a batter of 1 in. to 1 ft. and is semicircular; the up-stream 
end is triangular and has a batter of 3 in. to 1 ft. Indicate in the 
drawing that the coping is to be of dressed stone, the rest of the 
pier to be of rough-faced stone. 

7. Calculate the number of cubic yards of masonry in the pier 
above. 

8. Make neat detail drawings of the connections at one of the 
upper panel points of a riveted Pratt highway truss, showing con- 
nections of post with upper chord, diagonals and lateral bracing. 

9. Design a plate girder for a girder highway bridge, the girders 
to be 72 ft. long and 4^ ft. deep. Show the method of building up 
the girder, splice plates, stiffeners, rivet-spacing, floor beam con- 
nections, etc. 

10. Design the hand-railing and "end-post for a railing for the 
sidewalk on the approach to a city highway bridge. 



144 new york state civil service. 

(2 Sheets) Sheet No, 1. 

STATE OF NEW YOKK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Junior Bridge Draftsman. 

Time allowed for the whole examination, 8 hours. No books 
are needed, and none may be used. 

1. In some neat, suitable style of free-hand lettering, write the 
title: "Design, Including Estimates and Details, for a Suburban 
Highway Bridge. Span 120 ft. Submitted by Wm. M. Green, C. E." 

2. A through riveted Pratt highway truss has 7 panels, each 15 
ft. long and 27 ft. deep. The maximum stress determined for the 
lower chord of the middle panel is 36 700 lb., for the lower chord of 
the adjacent panel 30 500 lb., for the vertical at their point of meet- 
ing 3 600 lb., for the counter of the middle panel 1 000 lb., for the 
diagonal of the adjacent panel 12 400 lb. The unit stress taken for 
tension members is 10 000 lb. and for compression members is 7 000 
lb. Design from standard rolled forms the members that meet at 
this panel point. (Make close estimates of cross-sections that are 
not readily computed). 

3. Calculate the weights of the bridge members you have de- 
signed in answer to the above question, if the metal weighs 492 lb. 
per cu. ft. 

4. Make neat detail drawings showing your method of arranging 
and joining the above bridge members at the panel point. 



(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 

STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 

Examination for Junior Bridge Draftsman. 

5. Make drawings showing the details for the portal bracing for 
a highway bridge of the through Pratt type, span 105 ft., depth 27 
ft., width between trusses 18 ft. 

6. Design a timber truss for a highway span of 30 ft., showing 
method of its construction. 

7. A plate girder is to have a span of 60 ft. and depth of 3.5 
ft. The maximum required flange section is 24 sq. in. and the 
maximum required web section is 20 sq. in. The girder is to be 
designed in five panels. Make plan, elevation and section drawings, 
showing method of building up the girder, stiffening it, etc. 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 145 



TEACER. 



Minimum age, 18 years. Usual salary, $50 to $75 a month. The 
examination consists of practical questions and exercises in inking 
in drawings, making tracings and copies of drawings to scale. 

SPECIMEN QUESTIONS. 

1. Ink in the drawing attached. 

2. Letter, in some suitable style, the following title to the draw- 
ing: "Design for a Railroad Arch Culvert." 

3. Combine Eigs. 1, 2 and 3 into one drawing to the scale 
1 in. = 40 ft. 

4. Trace Eig. 4 and ink in your tracing. 



146 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 



(2 Sheets) Sheet No. 1. 
STATE OF NEW YOEK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 
Examination for Tracer. 
Directions: Answer questions 1 to 3 on one sheet of drafting 
paper, questions 4 to 6 on another sheet as furnished you. Time 
allowed for the whole examination, 6 hours. 

1-2. By the use of pencil, compass and straight-edge only, con- 
struct : 

(a) A line perpendicular to a given line at its extremity. 
(h) An arc of a circle passing through two points on a hori- 
zontal line, 2 in. apart, and a third point 1 in. above the line and 
to the right of the other points. Do not erase construction lines. 

3. Make a perspective drawing of a cube, 2 in. high, placed be- 
low and to the left of the eye of the observer. 

4-6. Copy the following drawing of an arch-culvert to the scale 
1 in. equals 4 ft. and ink in your drawing. 







(2 Sheets) Last Sheet. 
STATE OF NEW YORK— STATE CIVIL SERVICE 
COMMISSION. 
Examination for Tracer. 
7-10. On the sheet of tracing-paper furnished you, trace the map 
and ink it in so that blue-prints may be made from your tracing. 
In place of the "round-writing" used, letter your map in some other 
suitable style of free-hand lettering that you can do neatly and 
rapidly. 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 



147 




148 . NEW YORK STATE CTVIL SERVICE. 

GENEKAL mSPECTOR OF STKEETS AJSTD EOADS. 

Technical. 

1. In the selection of the kind of covering to be used for a 
street (whether granite block, asphalt or macadam), state the con- 
siderations or conditions that decide in each case. 

2. As a rule, which do you think preferable, granite block or 
trap block pavement (of same shaped blocks), and why? 

3. What results may there be from lack of care in preparing the 
ground surface for a pavement? 

4. (a) Under what conditions should you think it necessary that 
a highway should be underdrained ? (h) How should such a job be 
done? 

5. State every defect to be looked for in the inspection of a lot 
of granite blocks. 

6. Are defects ever found in concrete foundations for pave- 
ments, and if so, what are they? 

7. State every defect to be looked for in the work of setting 
granite blocks; in other words, how would you inspect such a pave- 
ment ? 

8. In the work of refilling a trench cut for pipe-laying in a 
street, is it possible to do it so as to prevent all probability of set- 
tlement ? If so, how should the men be distributed in the trench ? 

9. How would you make a quick test of cement to satisfy your- 
self that it is in good condition to use? 

10. (a) In what way does wear show itself on a macadam pave- 
ment? (h) What are the causes of "raveling" of such pavements? 
(c) How can this largely be prevented? 

11. (a) At what temperature should asphalt pavements be laid? 
(h) What are the results of a departure from this rule? 

12. (a) Where (that is, in what part of a street) does water 
have the greatest effect upon an asphalt street surface? (h) Why 
is this the case? 

13. In order to get the firmest adhesion of the asphalt to the 
surface below, either in new work or in making repairs, what are 
the essentials? 

14-15. Write a complete report on the condition of three streets 
of considerable length which have been in use for some time, one 



NEW YORK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 149 

paved v^^ith granite blocks, one paved with asphalt, and one with 
macadam, giving your recommendations in each case. 



INSPECTOR OF PUBLIC WORKS. 

Salary, $5 per day when employed. 

Open to men only. Time allowed, 6 hours. Subjects of exami- 
nation and relative weights : Practical questions on materials, con- 
struction and inspection, 6; experience and personal qualifica- 
tions, 4. 

SPECIMEN QUESTIONS. 
Practical Questions. 

1. What difference should be observed between concrete con- 
struction for water-tight retaining walls and for ordinary dry foun- 
dations ? 

2. Name all the ways you can suggest of slighting cement ma- 
sonry. 

3. What are the common defects of stone and how discovered? 

4. In what cases would you advise the use of grout rather than 
a full bed of mortar in building stonework? 

5. Give the essential points in a first-class job of brickwork in 
cement, including materials and workmanship. 

6. Describe some simple expedients to cheapen quicksand exca- 
vation. 

7. Describe the construction of the cheapest safe coffer-dam, 
subject to a head of 12 ft. of water and extending between im- 
pervious banks 100 ft. apart. 

8. Describe circumstances under which wheelbarrow excavation 
is the most economical method of handling earth. Same for casting 
with shovels; handling with carts; handling with cars. 

9. Suppose, in excavating for the foundations of a bridge abut- 
ment or a lock-wall, that the rock, which was thought to be prac- 
tically level at a certain depth, is found to fall away rapidly over 
a part of the foundation; what would you require of the contractor? 

10. Does it require more or less earth than that in a given cut- 
ting to make an embankment of the same size? How is this pro- 
vided for in making the embankment? 



150 



NEW YORK STATE CTVIL SERVICE. 



11. In building a canal, suppose the bottom to be but little below 
the natural surface; state under this condition every precaution 
that should be taken or may be necessary to prevent seepage at the 
junction of the bank with the ground and to insure the stability of 
the bank. 

12. Describe the materials best fitted for puddling, and how they 
should be used in building a bank to insure imperviousness to the 
passage of water. 

13. What are shakes? checks? What is sapwood, and how told? 
What is meant by brash timber, and how told? 

14. What kinds of timber last best in wet places? 

15. Where round drift-bolts are to be used, as in crib-work, etc., 
state the requirements to be observed in boring for, driving them, 
etc., to get the strongest hold in the timber. 

16. State all the defects you would look for in piles to be used 
on an important work. 

17. (a) How would you determine that a pile has been driven to 
a bearing? (h) How would this be affected by piles brooming at the 
top, and what is the remedy? (c) Which is the most effective 
method of driving, by frequent blows with small fall of ram, or 
slow blows with a greater fall? 

18. How should iron-work be prepared for repainting and what 
materials and method of application will give the most permanent 
coating ? 

SPECIAL EXAMINATIONS. 

There are occasional special examinations for positions in which 
vacancies are of infrequent occurrence and for which examinations 
are held only when vacancies occur. As to such examinations no 
detailed information can ordinarily be given in advance of the ad- 
vertisement of examination. Eor most of these positions the exami- 
nation consists entirely of questions upon the duties of the position, 
the technical knowledge required for their performance, and the 
experience, education, special training, and personal qualifications 
of candidates. A partial list of such examinations held in the past 
is given below. No specimen questions for such examinations can 
he furnished, nor will the subjects of examination and relative 
weights necessarily be the same in future examinations of similar 
character, as the Commission will be governed by the immediate 
needs of the service at the time the examinations are called. 



I NEW YORK STATE CRIL SERVICE. 151 

FOKEMAN OF EAKTH BOEINGS. 

$3.50 to $5 a day. 

Appointees will have charge of parties operating "Wash drills," 
and must have had experience in such work. Candidates are not 
required to appear at any place for examination, but will be rated on 
their experience, education and personal qualifications as shown 
by their sworn statements, and by the answers to inquiries made 
by the Commission of their former employers and others acquainted 
with their experience and qualifications. 

FOREMAN OF ROCK BORINGS. 

$3.50 to $5 a day. 

Appointees will have charge of parties operating "Diamond core 
drills" or "Davis calyx chilled shot drills," and must have had ex- 
perience in such work. Candidates are not required to appear at 
any place for examination, but will be rated on their experience, 
education and personal qualifications as above. 

FOREMAN OF PUBLIC WORKS. 

Open to men only. Compensation, $2.50 per day and upwards 
when employed. Candidates must have had thorough practical ex- 
perience as foremen or in charge of men upon public works or 
other engineering constructions. Subjects of examination and rela- 
tive weights: Practical questions on methods of construction and 
the employment and handling of men, 5; experience, 5. 

INSPECTOR GRADE CROSSINGS BUREAU, STATE 
RAILROAD COMMISSION. 

$1 500. 

The examination relates entirely to the work of the bureau, in- 
cluding the laws relating thereto, methods of procedure and con- 
struction, and considerations affecting the work, and to the ex- 
perience and personal qualifications of candidates. 

INSPECTOR OF HIGHWAY WORK. 

$3.50 to e$4.50 a day when employed. 

Subjects of examination and relative weights: Practical ques- 
tions on materials, construction and inspection of highway work, 6; 
experience and personal qualifications, 4. 



152 NEW YOEK STATE CIVIL SERVICE. 

MECHANICAL ENGINEER AND DRAFTSMAN. 

$1 500 to $1 800. 

Candidates should be thoroughly familiar with the calculations 
and design of all kinds of shafting, gearing, chains, cables, pillow 
blocks, etc., especially with the design of such machinery as is used 
on swing and lift bridges, mechanical locks, etc. Candidates must 
have at least five years' practical experience in drafting, design- 
ing and constructing this class of work. Subjects of examination 
and relative weights: Practical and theoretical questions on pro- 
portioning machinery as above outlined, 6; experience, education 
and personal qualifications, 4. For part of the examination candi- 
dates may use tables and books of reference as desired. 



RESIDENT ENGINEER. 

$2 400 a year. 

Applicants must have had at least five years' practical experience 
in civil engineering work, three years of which must have been in 
responsible charge of work. Candidates will not be required to 
appear at any place for examination. Subjects of examination and 
relative weights: Experience, education and personal qualifications 
rated upon the candidate's detailed statements and upon the answers 
to inquiries by the Commission from their previous employers and 
superiors, 5; two theses — a report upon some work of importance 
carried out under the charge of the candidate, and a discussion of 
some assigned topic relating to the problems to be handled in the 
construction of the proposed barge canal in this state, 5. The 
theses are to be written and submitted by the candidate in accord- 
ance with specifications and instructions issued by the Commission. 



BUFFALO CIVIL SERMCE. 153 

CIVIL SERVICE OF THE CITY OF BUFFALO. 

Instructions to Applicants. 

1. All applications by those desiring to render services, within 
schedule "B," except in Police and Fire Departments, of the rules 
and regulations prescribed for entering the Civil Service of the 
City of Buffalo, must be addressed to the "Secretary of the Buffalo 
Civil Service Commission, Buffalo, N. Y." 

2. All such applications must be made under oath, and must 
state the following facts: 

That the applicant is above the age of 21 years, and under 60 
years of age; that he is a citizen of the United States and has re- 
sided continuously in Buffalo for the last three years preceding his 
application; the street and number of his residence and his post- 
office address; his age, date and place of birth; the nature of his 
education; his business training and experience, and his business 
or employment and residence for the last previous five years; 
whether he has ever been in official service before, and if so, when 
and where; and whether he has ever been discharged therefrom, and 
if so, the reason therefor ; whether he has been honorably discharged 
from military or naval service of the L^nited States, as soldier, sailor 
or marine during the late Civil War, in which case the discharge, 
or a duly authenticated copy thereof, shall be submitted with the 
application; that he is free from any disease or physical defect 
which might impair his ability to render good and faithful service 
to the City of Buffalo. 

3. The application must contain the certificates of not less than 
three and not more than five reputable citizens of Buffalo that 
they, individually, have been personally acquainted with the appli- 
cant for at least one year and believe him to be of good moral 
character, of temperate and industrious habits, and in all respects 
fit for the service he wishes to enter, and that each such citizen is 
willing to answer such detailed questions as may be addressed to 
him by the Commission in relation thereto, and that such certificate 
should be published for public information. 

The applicant should also state whether the application is lim- 
ited to any particular office or offices in the service. All applica- 
tions must be in- handwriting of applicant. 

4. No recommendations or certificates besides those provided for 
on the blanks will be received, and no additional recommendations 
can be of any use in securing an appointment. 

5. The applicant will be notified of the first examination which 
he may attend after his application is received. He should give 
notice of any change of residence. 



154 



BUFFALO CIVIL SER^^CE. 



6. A failure to properly fill the blanks, or to send satisfactory 
certificates, will cause the application paper to be returned for cor- 
rection. Applications showing that the applicant lacks the quali- 
fications as to age, health, etc., will be rejected. 

7. Applicants may be notified of the result of examinations; 
when appointed they will be notified of their appointment by the 
appointing ofiicer. 

8. Priority of the date in examination will give no advantage; 
appointments are made from those standing highest on the eligible 
list in the order of their standing. 

9. No person whose general average standing is less than 75 
Vvdll be entered on the eligible list. 

10. Each subject is marked upon a scale of 100, w^hich repre- 
sents the maximum possible attainment. 

11. Every false statement knowingly made by any person in his 
application for examination, and every connivance by him at any 
false statement made in any certificate which may accompany his 
application, or wilful complicity in any fraud designed to improve 
his standing upon examination, any physical disability of the ap- 
plicant which wou^ld render him unfit to perform the duties of the 
position to which he seeks appointment; his being addicted to the 
habitual use of intoxicating beverages to excess, or his being guilty 
of a crime, or infamous or notoriously disgraceful conduct, shall 
be good cause for refusing such person any examination or any 
rating upon an examination, or for striking his name from any 
eligible list, or for the removal of such person from any position 
to which he may have been appointed. 

All appointments are first made for a probationary term of three 
months; if not permanently appointed then, the applicant shall be 
ineligible for re-examination for one year. 

12. No one dismissed from the service for misconduct can be re- 
examined for appointment in any capagity in the service within 
two years from such dismissal. 

Engineering Staff in the City of Buffalo, N. Y. 

1 Deputy Engineer Commissioner Salary $3 000 per annum. 

1 Assistant Engineer " 2 500 " " 

2 Assistant Engineers " 2 400 " " 

3 " " • . . " 1 800 " " 

1 Assistant Engineer " 1 600 " 

1 " " in charge of street 

repairs " 1500 " 

8 Trausitmen " 1 200 " 

12 Kodmen '' 900 " 

2 Draftsmen " 1 100 " 



BUFFALO CIVIL SERVICE. 155 

EXAMINATION FOR ASSISTANT CITY ENGINEER. 

Experience Sheet. 

March 11th, 1905. 

Note. — It is desired that applicants should write freely and fully 
in answer to the following questions, as great importance will be 
attached to both technical and practical experience, as shown by this 
part of the examination. 

1. What preparatory school have you attended and how long? 

2. Have you completed a course in engineering at a correspond- 
ence school? 

3. (a) What college or technical course did you pursue? (b) 
When and where? (c) Did you complete the entire course, and have 
you a diploma from that institution? (d) If so, what degree does 
it confer? 

4. (a) Have you ever been in City, State or National employ? 
{h) If so, in what capacity, and on what work? 

5. Write a full and complete account of your other engineering 
employment. Describe the work to which you were assigned, stating 
your special duties and responsibilities. 

Note. — This question is framed with the intention of bringing 
out the applicant's engineering experience since leaving school or 
college, and as it is desired to give full credit for practical accom- 
plishments the applicant will do well to lurite a full and accurate 
account of his engineering worh. It is suggested for his assistance, 
that he begin with his first practical experience, and follow on, year 
by year, with a narrative of his activities, giving some idea of the 
magnitude and values of the work in which he has been engaged. 



EXAMINATION OF ASSISTANT ENGINEERS. 

Technical Sheet No. 1. 

1. (a) Make a complete cross-section of an asphalt pavement 
giving dimensions, (h) Draw specifications covering excavation 
(the excavation to be in earth), (c) Draw specifications covering 
the curbing aiid the setting and draining of the same, (d) Draw 
specifications covering the foundation course, (e) Draw specifica- 
tions covering the spreading and finishing of the asphalt. 

2. Make sketch and describe briefly how you would construct a 
pile foundation for bridge pier where it is necessary to go through 
15 ft. of quicksand to reach a solid clay bottom. 

3. How would you measure the flow of water over a weir? 



156 BUFFALO CIVIL SERVICE. 

EXAMINATION FOE ASSISTANT ENGINEERS. 

Technical Sheet No. 2. 

4. In a stand-pipe 110 ft. high, filled to within 15 ft. 10^ in. from 
the top, what is the pressure, in pounds, at the base ? 

5. (a) Design a 4-ft. brick sewer. In your design show a cross- 
section, with a house connection. Also a manhole showing the sewer 
passing through it. (h) State briefly the essential things to be 
looked out for in the construction of your sewer, (c) Your sewer 
is 4 000 ft. long and averages 12 ft. below the surface, and rock ex- 
cavation begins 300 ft. from one end and is 7' ft. thick at the other 
end. Space your manholes 500 ft. apart with one at each end. 
Make a preliminary estimate of cost, including manholes, but not 
including any house connections. 

EXAMINATION FOR TEANSITMAN, 

Held April 8th, 1905. 

1. A pier is 4 by 15 ft. on the base and 16 ft. high, and has a 
batter of i in. to the foot. Find the number of cu. yds. of masonry, 
the total weight, at 150 lb. per cu. ft., and the pressure per square 
foot on the base. 

2. Make up a typical transit-book page, notes to show one angle 
in the center line, two cross-streets, curb lines, a flat, store, residence 
with iron fence, a stone monument, double-track trolley line in one 
of the intersecting streets. 

3. Lay out a 14° curve with a deflection angle of 4° 27', the 
plus of your P. C. being 16 + 71.4. 

4. If you were called upon to run in 400 ft. of sewer grade, how 
would you do it with a transit that did not have an attached level? 

5. You want to take soundings in Niagara River, using a base 
line on shore. How would you arrange your instruments on shore? 
Oive method of procedure. 

6. A plot of ground is 600 ft. square and has an interior point 11 
ft. higher than the elevations at the corners, which elevations are the 
same. How would you make a contour survey of it for a topographi- 
cal map ? 

7. Make plot of map showing necessary elevations and plot 2-ft. 
contours. 

8. Starting from a bench, elevation of which is 756.78, your rod 
reads 1.42 and rods on center-line stations are 0.78, 3.41, 7.03, 9.56, 



BUFFALO CIVIL SER^TLCE. 157 

11.87 and on a T. P. 12.12. On new set-up they are on T. P. 2.31 
and on new stations 3.01, 4.55, 0.77, 9.13 and 12.97. You have a 2% 
down grade with grade elevation at Station 1 of 748.16. Make a 
page of level notes, giving cuts and fills at stations. 

EXAMINATION FOE EODMAN. 

Experience Sheet. 

Note. — It is desired that applicants should write freely and fully 
in answer to the following questions, as great importance will be 
attached to both technical and practical experience, as shown by 
this part of the examination. 

1. What schools have you attended and for what period of time? 

2. (a) What college or technical course did you pursue? (h) 
When and where? (c) Did you complete the entire course, and have 
you a diploma for that institution? (d) If so, what degree does it 
confer ? 

3. (a) Have you ever been in City, State or National employ? 
(h) If so, in what capacity, and on what work? 

4. Write a full and complete account of your other engineering 
employment. Describe the work to which you were assigned, stating 
your special duties and responsibilities. 

This question is framed with the intention of bringing out the 
applicant's engineering experience since leaving school or college, 
and as it is desired to give full credit for practical accomplishments 
the applicant will do well to write a full and accurate account of his 
engineering work. It is suggested for his assistance that he begin 
with his first practical experience, and follow on, year by year, with 
a narrative of his activities, giving some idea of the magnitude and 
values of the work in which he has been engaged. 

EXAMINATION FOE CHAINMAN. 

Technical Sheet. 

1. How long is a Gunter's chain? 

2. Explain the use of eleven pins. 

3. Explain how you would chain on a slope steep enough to make 
it necessary to break chain. 

4. Describe the method of locating a point by intersections. 

5. How would you lay out a right angle with a chain? 

6. In using a steel tape, 100 ft. long, with the last foot gradu- 
ated in tenths, describe how the two chainmen would determine 



158 



BUFFALO CIVIL SERVICE. 



and read the plus of a station several hundred feet from the starting 
point. 

7. State the proper waj to hold the flag or transit rod. 

8. If you were sent out to measure up the finished portion of 
work on a paving contract, how would you do it if the street were 
hilly? 

9. Describe the method of making a chain survey of a six-sided 
field. 

10. A house stands on the line in a chain survey, how would you 
chain past it? 

11. On account of a rise of ground neither end of a line is vis- 
ible from the other. Describe the first thing to be done in order to 
get the measurement. 

12. A reservoir site has two parallel sides, and two right angles. 
(a) Describe how you would make a complete chain survey, (h) 
How would you calculate the area ? 

13. A rectangular city block contains 2.324 acres and is twice as 
long as it is wide. Give the dimensions. 

14. How many square feet of land are there in a street 4 rods 
wide and If miles long? 

15. How many cubic yards of sand under a stone pavement, 30 
ft. wide and 2 740 ft. long, the sand being 14 in. deep ? 



EXAMINATION FOE EOD AND AXEMEN. 

Held June 23d, 1904. 

1. What is the length of a Gunter's chain? 

2. If a tape is divided into feet and tenths, how many tenths 
will there be in 48 i- ft.? 

3. Keduce 262° 44' 18'' to seconds. 

4. Eind the capacity in cubic feet of a box of which the inner 
dimensions are: Length, 25 in.; breadth, 17 in., and depth, 11^ in. 

5. What is a transit line? 

6. What is land surveying? 

7. State in a general way the use of a level. 

8. State in a general way the use of a leveling rod. 

9. What is a bench-mark? 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



159 



CIVIL SERVICE OF THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS 
AND THE CITY OF BOSTON. 

Instructions to Applicants and Eligibles. 

A person desiring to be examined for a position in the classified 
service should file an application on the prescribed blank, and a 
form for that purpose can be obtained at the office of the commis- 
sioners, room 152, State House, Boston, or of the secretary of the 
local board of examiners in the city where he lives. 

Applications for the service of the Commonwealth and of the 
city of Boston should be filed in the commissioners' office, Boston; 
if for service in any city other than Boston they should be filed 
with the secretary of the board of civil service examiners in such 
city. 

Applications will be received at any time, and notice of the time 
and place of examination will be seasonably sent to each applicant. 
If unable to attend the first examination after applying, the appli- 
cant will, upon satisfactory explanation, be notified to attend the 
next examination. 

Non-competitive examinations are not given when it is practi- 
cable to establish an eligible list by competition, and they are never 
held at the request of an applicant. 

The commissioners cannot furnish information as to the course 
of preparation which applicants should follow (except as shown 
by the specimen examination papers printed in their report), nor 
can they answer inquiries in relation to cases which are not before 
them for decision, or decide, except in the cases of actual appli- 
cants, questions respecting the application df the rules. Particular 
answers cannot be given to inquiries which are answered herein, 
directly or by implication. 

Notice will be sent by mail to each examined applicant of the 
result of his examination as soon after the examination as it is prac- 
ticable to do so. 

The names of persons who have passed the required examination 
will remain on the eligible list two years from the date of their cer- 
tificate, unless dropped therefrom after certification three times, or 
removed from said list for cause. 

Applicants for clerical service whose names have been placed 
on the eligible list in Class 2 of Schedule A may also, upon request 
in writing, have their names placed on the eligible list for positions 
in Class 1 of Schedule A, with the same standing. 

Applicants for clerical service in the departments of the Com- 
monwealth whose names have been placed on the eligible list may, 
upon request in writing, have their papers marked by the local 
board of examiners of the city in which they reside, and their names 
placed on the eligible list for service in the departments of such 
city, and vice versa. 



160 BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 

Persons v^hose names liave been placed on the eligible list in 
Class 1 of Schedule B (prison service), and who have been certified 
for appointment, will be subjected to a physical examination if the 
appointing officer so requests. 

The relative standing of any applicant as compared with that 
of others on the same eligible list may be changed by the addition 
of names of persons who have obtained higher standing at some 
more recent examination, and the time of the examination is not 
considered in making certifications. 

Eligibles are certified in the order of their grade, and nothing 
can help and nothing can hinder their certification for appoint- 
ment in the order of eligibility as prescribed by the civil service 
rules. 

The commissioners are unable to answer inquiries as to vacan- 
cies in the service, salaries, prospects of certification, appointment 
or promotion. They know nothing of vacancies until requested to 
certify names for filling them, and it can only be generally said 
that the highest mark possible is 100, the lowest which gives eligi- 
bility is 65, and that the nearer the applicant's mark is to 100 the 
more likely it is that his name willbe reached for certification. It 
■ is wholly uncertain, therefore, when an applicant's name may be 
reached for certification, and it is useless to speculate on what bis 
chances may be. 

Applicants will save the commissioners and themselves time and 
trouhle hy carefully reading the foregoing and preserving it for 
reference. 

DIVISIONS OF THE CIVIL ENGINEERING FORCE. 

Division A, or rodmen: To include chainmen, rodmen, and all 
assistants under whatever designation, except draftsmen, whose 
maximum pay does not exceed the rate of $800 per annum. 

Division B, or instrument men: To include transitmen, levellers 
and> all assistants under whatever designation, except those cov- 
ered by divisions A and E, and whose maximum pay does not exceed 
the rate of $1 100 per annum. 

Division C, or assistant engineers (junior grade) : To include 
engineers and surveyors in responsible charge of work and engi- 
neers in charge of designing whose maximum pay does not exceed 
the rate of $1 600 per annum. 

Division D, or assistant engineers: To include all engineers 
whose pay exceeds the rate of $1 600 per annum. 

Division E,* or draftsmen (junior grade) : To include all as- 
sistants whose duties are chiefly those of drafting and whose rate of 
pay does not exceed $800 per annum. 

Division F, or draftsmen (senior grade) : To include all as- 
sistants whose duties are chiefly those of drafting and whose pay is 
at the rate of over $800 and does not exceed $1 300 per annum. 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



161 



SCHEDULE B, CLASS 12, DIVISION A""' (KODMAN). 

Handwriting; shown by copying printed matter. 

Spelling; twenty words, announced by one of the examiners. 

Education and experience. 

The answers to the questions on this sheet will be marked under 
the heads of Education and Experience. Any false statement made 
hy the applicant in answering these questions will he regarded as 
good cause for excluding him from the eligible list, or for removal 
or discharge during probation or thereafter. 

What is the date of your birth ? 

State what grammar school, high school, technical school or col- 
lege you have attended, the dates and length of attendance, the 
studies pursued and diplomas taken. State any other facts regarding 
your education which you think may be of service to the exam- 
iners. 

Have you had any practical experience in the duties of the posi- 
tion for which you apply ? If you have, state the particular position 
or positions you have held; the nature of your duties in each case; 
where, when, how long and under whom (giving accurately the name 
and address) you have been so employed. 

Are you employed at present? If you are, give the name and 
address of your employer, state the nature of your duties and the 
length of time you have held this position. If you are not em- 
ployed, state how long you have been without employment and the 
cause for which you last ceased work. 

* The examination for division A and for division E will occupy one day each. The 
examinations for the other divisions will occupy two days each. 



162 BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 

PKEVIOUS EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



EODMAN. 

Arithmetic. 

Including common and decimal fractions, percentage, square 
root, mensuration of rectangular surfaces and solids. 

Sample Questions. 

1. Add 467 ft. 81 in., 27 ft. 9| in., 510 ft. U in., and 102 ft. Gf 
in., and from the sum subtract 299.52 ft., giving the answer to the 
nearest eiglith of an inch. 

2. Multiply two hundred fifty-seven ten-thousandths by forty- 
nine thousandths. 

3. Divide 2 880 by .0036. 

« 

4. Add i^, ^1 and ||, and reduce the sum to a decimal fraction 
carried to five places of decimals. 

5. A dry brick weighing 4 lb. 6 oz, was immersed in water for 
twenty-four hours, at the end of which time it was found to weigh 5 
lb. OJ oz. ; what per cent, of its own weight was absorbed ? 

6. A square plot of ground contains 108 900 sq. ft. ; what is the 
length of a side? 

7. A rectangular piece of land, 210 ft. 3 in. long and 50 ft. 9 in. 
wide, has a ditch 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, which was dug inside the 
boundary lines, said lines being the outer edge of the ditch. How 
many cubic yards of material were removed from the ditch ? 

Algebra, 

To and including the solution of simultaneous equations of the 
second degree. 

Sample Questions. 

1. Multiply Qc^ —^ + ^^'^ by (^^ + ^) ' 

2. Divide 256 a^ h c^ x^ by — 16 a^ c x^. 

3. Divide a distance of 1 000 ft. into three parts — A, B and C — 
such that A shall be 72 ft. longer than B and 100 ft. shorter than C. 
Solve by algebraic method. 

2 

4. Solve the equation 2 ^ x -\ — o- = 5. 

V 3/ 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 163 

5. A rectan^lar field contains 40 960 sq. ft. If its length were 
increased by 65 ft. and its breadth by 50 ft., its area would be in- 
creased by 26 450 sq. ft. Find the length and breadth of the field. 

Geometry. 

The applicant will be expected to have such familiarity with the 
principal theorems of plane and solid geometry as will enable him 
to solve simple problems dealing with lines, angles, areas and vol- 
umes. Demonstrations of theorems will not he required. 



Sample Questions. 

1. One interior angle of a certain triangle contains 43° 19' 40"; 
a second interior angle contains 105° 59' 20''; what is the value of 
the remaining angle? 

2. Choose any three points on paper, and by aid of a sketch 
explain how, by geometrical construction, you would find the center 
of a circle passing through them. 

3. What is the length of the circumference of a circle which 
would enclose an area of 5 000 sq. ft. ? tt = 3.1416. 

4. If a field have two parallel sides, one of them 356 ft. long and 
the other 407 ft. long, the perpendicular distance between them being 
96.5 ft., what is the area of the field? 

5. A stone in the form of a pyramid 3 ft. high, with its base a 
square 30 in. on a side, will weigh how much, assuming 150 lb. 
weight to the cubic foot ? 

Duties. 

Questions relating to the construction and use of rods, tapes, 
verniers and other implements and devices. Details of the work of 
rodmen in the field and office. Definitions of technical terms. 



Tracing. 

Tracing-cloth and a plan or a drawing of some engineering struc- 
ture are furnished the applicant, who will be required to make a 
tracing in India ink. 



164 BOSTON CmL SER^^CE. 

SCHEDULE B, CLASS 12, DIVISION B (INSTKUMENT- 

MAN). 

Handwriting. ) 

Spelling. V Same as Division A. 

Education and experience. ) 

Algebra. 

To and including the solution of simultaneous equations of the 
second degree. 

Sample Questions. 

X — 1 — 

1. Simplify, as far as possible, the expression ^ ' 

(T — + -1^ 

X + 3 

2. Solve the equation (^^ + ^^ x — ("^ — ^^ + 2 x = a. 

\h a/ \h a/ 

3. The circumference of the hind-wheel of a carriage is greater 
by 4 ft. than that of the fore-wheel. In traveling 1 200 yd., the 
fore-wheel makes 75 revolutions more than the hind-wheel. Find 
the circumference of each wheel. 

4. A man has two square lots of unequal size, together contain- 
ing 15 025 sq. ft. If the lots were contiguous, it would require 530 
ft. of fence to embrace them in a single enclosure of six sides. 
Eind the area of each lot. 

5. Solve, for either x or y, the simul- ( x^ -\- Z y- =.2S 

taneous equations: { x^ -\- 2 y^ -\- x y = 16. 

Geometry. 

The applicant will be expected to have such familiarity with the 
principal theorems of plane and solid geometry as will enable him 
to solve simple problems dealing with lines, angles, areas and vol- 
umes. Demonstrations of theorems will not he required. 

Sample Questions. 

1. The altitudes of two equilateral triangles are respectively as 
3 to 4. Eind the ratio of their areas, and give your reasoning. 

2. Show how, by geometrical construction, you would divide a 
given straight line into any required number of equal parts. Give 
the reasoning upon which you base your construction. 

3. Eind the length of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle 
which would enclose one acre. 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 165 

4. A metal cylinder 5 ft. long and 8 in. in diameter is turned 
down in a lathe to a diameter of 6 in. Find the total weight of 
metal removed, assuming 450 lb. per cu. ft. 

5. A cone measures 32 ft. around the base, and the length of 
its slope is 8 ft. Find the number of cubic yards it contains. 



Trigonometry. 

Plane trigonometry, — trigonometrical functions, properties of 
logarithms and use of logarithmic table, solution of triangles, either 
right or oblique, by either natural functions or logarithms. 

Sample Questions. 

1. What do you understand by the cosine of an angle? By the 
tangent? By the versed sine? The sine of a certain angle is J; 
compute its cosine. What is the cosine of 135° ? 

2. What do you understand by the base of a system of loga- 
rithms? What is the base of the common system? In the common 
system, what is the logarithm of 1? Of 1 000? Of 0.01? 

3. Compute by logarithms : 

3.7096 X 286.51 X 0.2956 



^^^^^ ; (23.8464)3; ^ 0.0042937. 

4. In a right-angled triangle the hypothenuse measures 154 ft., 
and one of the acute angles 49° '53'. Compute, by natural functions, 
the lengths of the sides ; determine also the area of the triangle. 

5. In an oblique triangle, the angle B measures 19° 21' 40'^ the 
angle A 103° 35', and the side opposite B 87.36 ft. Compute, by 
logarithms, one of the remaining sides. 



Duties. 

Questions relating to the details of the work of the second man 
in a surveying party, in the field and office, including the construc- 
tion, adjustment, care and use of the transit and level; compass and 
stadia surveying; details of surveying and leveling, keeping field 
notes, measuring and counting earth work. Definition of technical 
terms. 

Plotting. 

Plotting a survey by co-ordinates from field notes, inking-in plot 
and lettering a title. 



166 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



Sample Question. 



Plot accurately on a scale of 20 ft. to an inch, the survey of a 
lot of land given in the following notes : 



Station. 


Bearing. 


Distance. 


1. 


K 35° 0' E. 


108.00 feet. 


2. 


K 83° 30' E. 


51.60 " 


3. 


S. 57° 0' E. 


88.80 " 


4. 


S. 34° 15' W. 


142.00 " 


5. 


S. 56° 30' W. 


129.20 " 



Ink in the plot, mark the bearing and length of each side, and 
letter the following title, making your own arrangement: "Plan of 
land belonging to John Smith, December, 1897. Scale, 20 ft. to an 
inch.'^ (Arrange and space all letters, and finish enough in each line 
to show your skill.) 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 167 

SCHEDULE B, CLASS 12, DIVISION C (ASSISTANT ENGI- 
NEER, JUNIOE GRADE). 

Education and Experience. 

Same as Division A. 

Algebra. 

To and including the solution of simultaneous equations of the 
second degree. 



/i. 



Sample Questions. 
Find, in as simple form as possible, the value of 



2. Increase the length of a given rectangle 2 ft., and its width 1 
ft., and its area is increased 12 sq. ft. On the other hand, diminish 
its length 3 ft., and its width 2 ft., and its area is diminished 11 sq. 
ft. What is the perimeter of the rectangle? 

3. Francis' formula for the discharge over suppressed weirs is 

Q = 3.33 Z 7i ■2", in which, if I and h are in feet, Q is in cubic feet 
per sec. If h be 0.324 ft., what value of I will correspond to 5.37 cu. 
ft. per second for ^ ? 

^ 4. A boat's crew rowed down stream 7 miles and back in 3 hours 
20 minutes. The velocity of the current was 2 miles per hour. How 
many miles per hour would the crew make in still water? 

V 5. Two loans, together amounting to $45 000, are made at differ- 
ent rates of interest, but the amounts borrowed are such that the 
respective annual interest payments are equal. If the first loan were 
to be charged the second's rate of interest, its annual payment would 
be $800 ; and if the second loan were to be charged the first's rate of 
interest, its annual payment would be $1 250. Find the respective 
rates of interest. 

Geometry. 

The applicant will be expected to have such familiarity with 
the principal theorems of plane and solid geometry as will enable 
him to solve simple problems dealing with lines, angles, areas, and 
volumes. Demonstrations of theorems will not he required. 

Sample Questions. 

1. Explain, by reference to a sketch, how you would divide a 
line that is 26 in. long into three parts proportional to the numbers 
2, I, 1. Compute also the leng-ths of the respective parts. 



^^S BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 

2. A hexagonal bar of steel, 10 ft. 3 in. long, measures 12 in. 
around the perimeter of a right section. What is the weight of the 
bar, at 490 lb. per cu. ft. ? 

3. A trapezoidal lot of land, 120 ft. in length, measured perpen- 
dicularly between its parallel ends, tapers uniformly and equally on 
both sides from a width of 24 ft. at one end to 14 ft. at the other 
end. Where should it be cut transversely, that is, parallel to the 
ends, so as to make two pieces of equal area ? 

4. The base of a pyramid contains 144 sq. ft. A plane parallel 
to the base and 4 ft. from the vertex cuts a section containing 64 sq. 
ft. What is the height of the pyramid ? 

5. A hollow cylinder 4 ft. in diameter and 15 ft. long, lying upon 
its side, is filled with water until the latter touches two-thirds of the 
circumference, at which time it is also within 1 ft. of the top. How 
much water does the cylinder then contain ? 



Trigonometry. 

Plane trigonometry — trigonometrical functions, properties of 
logarithms and use of logarithmic table, solution of triangles, either 
right or oblique, by either natural functions or logarithms. 



< 



Sz^^MPLE Questions. 



The value of the sine of a certain angle is xf . Without using 
tables, find the value of cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and co- 
secant, and show clearly your method. 

2. Three times the sine of a certain angle is equal to twice the 
square of the cosine of the same angle. WTiat is the angle? 

3. By logarithms obtain the value of the following expression: 

5 3 

(0.68291)^ X V 5.9546 X V 61.2 

5 

V^' 298.543 

4. Two tangents to a circular curve of 3 000 ft. radius inter- 
sect so as to include an interior angle of 157° 8'. Find the length 
of either tangent from point of contact with curve to point of inter- 
section, using natural functions. 

~ 5. A distance A B across a stream is to be determined. A base 
line A C, 200 ft. long, is measured off on one bank, sights are taken 
from each end of it to B, and the angles which the lines of sight 
make with the base are measured, A being 104° 53' and 58° 11'. 
Compute the distance A B, using logarithms. 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. ^^^ 



Duties. 



Questions relating to the work of the head of an engineering 
field party, including the special work of surveying in cities, giving 
lines and grades for construction, measuring and estimating earth, 
rock and quantities in engineering structures; definition of technical 
terms; surveying problems. 

Engineering Theory. 

Elementary principles of mechanics, hydrostatics and hydraulics, 
and their application to simple problems. Problems in surveying. 

Sample Questions. 

(Applicants are required to answer but three questions.) 

1. The notes of a survey and the calculated latitudes and depart- 
ures are as follows: 



stations. 




Bearings. 




Distances. 


Latitudes. 


Departures. 


1. 


N. 


30° 0' 


E. 


328.68 


284.64 


164.34 


2. 


N. 


57° 45' 


E. 


306.90 


163.78 


259.54 


3. 


S. 


39° 30' 


E. 


396.00 


305.58 


251.87 


4. 


s. 


37° 15' 


W. 


391.38 


311.53 


236.92 


5. 


N. 


69° 15' 


W. 


465.96 


165.07 


435.78 



Balance the survey, give the error of closure and calculate the 
area. 

2. Two streets intersect at an angle of 42° 28'. It is desired to 
ease the acute-angled intersection, making the street boundary a 
circular curve of 10-ft. radius, tangent to the street lines. Give the 
area of the land to be taken, and the length of each line bound- 
ing it. 

3. What should be the cross-section of a yellow pine beam 12 ft. 
long, supported at both ends, to sustain with safety a center load 
of 5 000 lb. ? 

What should be the cross-section if the load is uniformly dis- 
tributed ? 

If a beam of the same length is fixed at one end only, and has 
the same load concentrated at the other, what should be the cross- 
section ? 

Assume for all cases an extreme fiber strain of 1 250 lb. per sq. in. 

The moment of inertia of a rectangle is -^. 

4. Compute the number of square yards of paving in the road- 
bed of a section of a curved street 30 ft. wide, the radius of the 
center line being 175 ft. and the angle at the center being 47°. 



170 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



5. A rectangular wall 10 ft. high, weighing 140 lb. per cu. ft., 
would need to be how thick in order to be stable against overturning, 
if exposed to the pressure of water standing level with its top on 
one side only? 

6. Compute the tension in pounds per square inch in the metal 
of a water pipe, if the metal be J in. thick, the inside diameter of 
pipe 2 ft., and the water pressure that due to a static head of 207 ft. 

7. The diameter of a steam engine cylinder is 9 in., the length 
of crank 10 in., the number of revolutions per minute 110, and the 
mean effective pressure of the steam 35 lb. per sq. in. Find the indi- 
cated horse-power. 

Materials and Methods of Construction. 

Properties and characteristics of the various materials used in 
engineering construction ; proper tests to be applied to ascertain their 
strength and other qualities; methods employed in preparing and 
placing the materials in the work; definition of technical terms. 

The questions which have been given have related to stone and 
brick masonry, methods of laying and bonding various classes of 
masonry, and the qualities of the several materials entering into 
their construction ; to the different kinds of hydraulic cements, their 
strengths and methods of testing; to concrete, the proper propor- 
tions of the several ingredients and methods of mixing and deposit- 
ing under different conditions; to the different kinds of roads and 
pavements, the materials used and methods of building; to the 
properties and characteristics of cast iron, wrought iron and steel, 
to the uses for which each is best adapted, and to their strengths 
and methods of testing the same. Definition of technical terms in 
common use in engineering specifications. 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



171 



SCHEDFLE B, CLASS 12, DIVISION D (ASSISTANT ENGI- 
NEER, SENIOR GRADE). 

Education and Experience. 

Same as Division A. 

Trigonometry. 

Plane trigonometry — trigonometrical functions, properties of 
logarithms and use of logarithmic table, solution of triangles, either 
right or oblique, by either natural functions or logarithms. 



Sample Questions. 

1. The value of the tangent of a certain angle is fV . Without 
using tables, find the value of sine, cosine, cotangent, secant and 
cosecant, and show clearly your method. 

2. Water runs 42 in. deep in a 48-in. circular conduit. What is 
the area of the water section? 

3. By logarithms obtain the value of the following expression: 

3 3 

(0.68291)^ X / 5.9548 X V 61.2 , 
g : 

\/ 288.543 

4. Two tangents to a circular curve of 2 900 ft. radius intersect 
so as to include an interior angle of 157° 8'. Find the length of 
either tangent from point of contact with curve to point of intersec- 
tion, using natural functions. 

5. A distance A B across a stream is to be determined. A base 
line A C, 220 ft. long, is measured off on one bank, sights are taken 
from each end of it to B, and the angles which the lines of sight 
make with the base are measured, A being 104° 53'' and 58° 11^ 
Compute the distance, A B, using logarithms. 

Engineering Theory. 
Same as Division C. 



Materials and Methods of Construction. 
Same as Division C {except for surveyors^) . 

* For surveyors (instead of materials and methods of construction): Advanced sur- 
veying. Questions in geodetic, topographic and hydrographic surveying, methods of 
accurate land surveying and leveling in cities; details of the work of laying out and 
grading new streets and relocating old streets; evidence of ownership in disputed 
boundary lines. Surveying problems. 



1.72 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



Designing. 



This subject requires the applicant to make a complete design 
of an engineering structure in the particular line of work in which 
he is engaged, or in which he seeks employment, and to answer 
pertinent questions as to the actual work of construction. Data to 
the extent usually available in actual practice will be given, and 
from these the applicant must make the necessary computations, 
prepare plans and sketches, showing clearly his design, and write a 
brief specification of the work to be done, the whole to be in sufficient 
detail to enable a definite proposal to be made for building the pro- 
posed structure. 

At the beginning of his second day's work each applicant has 
been required to announce his choice of some one of the following 
optional subjects upon which he elected to be examined: 

1. Design for a plate-girder bridge. 

2. Design for a through-truss highway bridge. 

3. Design for a bridge abutment of masonry, with wing walls. 

4. Design for a street intersection. 

5. Advanced surveying, and surveying problems. 

6. Design for the cross-section of a trunk sewer. 

7. Design for a system of separate sewers. 

8. Questions relating mainly to excavation and embankment; 
heavy masonry construction in tunnels, aqueducts and walls; water- 
pipe laying; and the interpretation of drawings. A certain amount 
of choice has been permitted in the subdivisions of this class. 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



173 



Same as Division A. 



SCHEDULE B, CLASS 12, DIVISION E (DEAFTSMAN, 
JUNIOK GKADE). 

Handwriting. 

Spelling. 

Education. 

Experience. 

Arithmetic. [ 

Algebra. 

Geometry. 

Tracing. 

Instead of the subject called "Duties," which appears in the rod- 
man's examination, the applicants ' for this division will be given 
elementary drawing. 



SCHEDULE B, CLASS 12, DIVISION F (DEAFTSMAN, 
SENIOE GEADE). 

Handwriting. ) 

Spelling. > Same as Division A. 

Education and Experience. ) 

AllITHMETIC. 

Including common and decimal fractions, percentage, square 
root, mensuration of rectangular surfaces and solids. 



Sample Questions. 

1. Change the following lengths to feet and inches, giving the 
answers to the nearest eighth of an inch: 12.56 ft.; 6.82 ft.; 4.20 ft. 

2. Divide one and six hundred sixteen thousandths by eight ten- 
thousandths. 

3. Add ^, Yo ^^^ It J and from the sum subtract nine thousand 
one hundred forty-seven hundred-thousandths. Carry the work to 
five places of decimals. 

4. Twenty-fiVe thousand ft., board measure, of 2-in. plank were 
sent from the lumber yard to cover the roadway of a bridge 260 ft. 
long and 42 ft. wide. What per cent, of the planking was wasted? 

Algebra. 

To and including the solution of simultaneous equations of the 
second degree. 



174 



boston civil service. 

Sample Questions. 
3 h^ x^ 



1. Multiply -^^^ by ^^3^,- 

2. Divide x^ — Q x^ -\- ^ x"^ — Ihj x^ -\- 2 x^ — x — 1. 

3. There are three numbers. If we add i the first to ^ the second 
plus I the third, the sum will be 62. Or J the first plus I the second 
plus \ the third equals 47. Or I the first plus 4 the second plus i 
the third equals 38. Find the numbers. 

4. Solve the equation 4 x — := 14. 

X + 1 

5. A rectangular plot of ground is surrounded by a walk 7 ft. 
wide. The area of the plot and walk is 15 000 sq. ft., and of the 
walk 3 696 sq. ft. Find the length and breadth of the plot. 

Geometry. 

The applicant will be expected to have such familiarity with the 
principal theorems of plane and solid geometry as will enable him 
to solve simple problems dealing with lines, angles, areas and vol- 
umes. Demonstrations of theorems will not he required. 



Sample Questions. 

1. Through the vertex of a right angle a straight line of indefi- 
nite length is drawn, lying outside the angle. What is the sum of 
the two acute angles thereby formed? Give your reasoning. 

2. If the angle at the vertex of an isosceles triangle is a right 
angle^ what ratio exists between the base and the altitude? Give 
your reasoning. 

3. Supposing a tangent drawn to a circle from a given point 
without; show by a sketch how you would determine the precise 
point of tangency. Give the reasons for your method. 

4. The bases of a trapezoid are 32 ft. and 20 ft. respectively. 
Each of the other sides is 10 ft. Find the area of the trapezoid. 

5. A cubic foot of brass is drawn into a wire i inch in 
diameter. Find the length of the wire to the nearest foot. ^ = 
3.1416. 

Trigonometry. 

Plane trigonometry — trigonometrical functions, properties of 
logarithms and use of logarithmic table, solution of triangles, either 
right or oblique, by either natural functions or logarithms. 



BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 



175 



Sample Questions. 

1. In a triangle ABC the angle A is 90° ; the side A B is 4 
units long, ACS units, and B C 5 units. State, from inspection 
of the figure, the value of the cosine of the angle C; the sine of B; 
the tangent of C; the secant of B. 

2. Construct on paper an angle of 53° 1¥ by means of its tan- 
gent (to be obtained from the tables), and explain your method. 

3. Multiply 4978.3 by (0.2916)3 and divide the result by ^ TMK, 
using logarithms for all the computations. 

4. A regular octagon is inscribed in a circle of 8 ft. diameter. 
Compute the length of a side, using only natural functions for the 
angles. 

5. Prom a point in the same horizontal plane v^ith the base of 
a tower, the angle of elevation of its top is 60° 39'; and from a 
point 100 ft. further awaj it is 35° 16'. Required the height of the 
tower. 

Duties. 

Questions relating to the implements, materials and methods 
used in making maps and plans. Details of plans, such as lettering 
titles, coloring and ornamenting; scales, north points, etc. 

Methods of duplicating, preserving and cleaning plans, etc. 



Tracing. 
Same as Division A. 

Plotting. 

Plotting a survey by co-ordinates from field notes, inking in plot 
and lettering a title. 

Sample Question. 

Plot accurately, on a scale of 30 ft. to an inch, the survey of a 
parcel of land given in the following notes : 



station. 


Bearing. 


Distance. 


1. 


N. 48° 30' E. 


213.00 feet. 


2. 


S. 42° 15' E. 


193.80 " 


3. 


S. 49° 15' W. 


162.00 " 


4. 


N. 82° 15' W. 


77.40 " 


5. 


N. 42° 45' W. 


133.20 " 



Locate station one 5-^ in. from the bottom of the drawing paper 
and two inches from the left margin. 



176 BOSTON CIVIL SERVICE. 

Ink-in the plot, mark the bearing and length of each side, draw a 
north point and letter the following title, making yonr own ar- 
rangement: "Plan of land in Boston belonging to John Smith, 
March, 1898. Scale, 30 ft. to an inch." 

Drawing. 

This subject calls for the making of a detailed drawing of an 
engineering structure, the whole to be finished in India ink and 
neatly lettered. A rough sketch will be furnished, giving the gen- 
eral dimensions of the structure, and such other data will be supplied 
as a chief draftsman or designer in actual practice would give 
to his assistant to enable him to prepare a set of working drawings. 

In examinations already held, the applicants have been required 
to make the drawings of a masonry abutment for a highway bridge. 



XEW 0RLEA2SS CIVIL SERVICE. 177 

CIVIL SERVICE OE THE CITY OE NEW ORLEANS, LA. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO APPLICANTS. 

I. General Instructions. 

Candidates for any Civil Service position under the government 
of the City of New Orleans, should, first of all, carefully read the 
printed rules of the Board. These will answer many questions, and 
a careful reading of them will prevent many mistakes. Should any 
additional information be desired, it may be obtained at the office 
of the Board, which is always open within legal hours. 

2. Persons Who Will Not Be Examined. 

No person will be admitted to examination: 

(a) Who is physically disqualified for the kind of service he 
seeks; 

(h) Who habitually uses intoxicating liquors to excess; 

(c) Who is enlisted in the army or navy. 

(d) Who has been dismissed from the service of the City of New 
Orleans for good cause. 

3. Obtaining and Filling Out Application Blanks. 

No person will be admitted to examination who has not pre- 
viously filed an application for the particular examination which he 
seeks on the application blank prescribed by the Board. Each appli- 
cant must apply for his own application blank, as it is contrary to 
the rules of the Board to furnish blanks to one person for the use 
of another person. 

The certificate of vouchers required in the application papers 
are of the utmost importance. Applicants should seek as vouchers 
persons who have practically known them in their callings. The 
certificates of persons of distinction in politics are of weight, only 
so far as they show real or close knowledge of the candidate, and 
the Board's action can in no way be biased by the political influ- 
ence, real or supposititious, of the signers. 

Eull instructions for the execution of the application will be 
found on the blank itself, and applicants are cautioned to answer 
all questions and conform in all respects to the printed instructions. 
A failure to do this causes delay and annoyance. 

Applicants will not be admitted to examinations who have not 
complied with the requirements of other proper authority in ad- 
vance. An application will be good for only one kind of examina- 
tion, and if an applicant desires to take more than one kind of 
examination he must file a separate application for each kind desired. 



178 



NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 



In the case of foreign-born citizens proof of citizenship must 
be furnished. If naturalized, a certificate of naturalization must 
accompany the application. A foreign-born person who claims that 
his parents were citizens of the United States at the time of his 
birth must furnish evidence in support of his claim. A foreign- 
born citizen who was naturalized by the naturalization of his father 
or his mother, while he was a minor, must furnish his father's cer- 
tificate of naturalization, and evidence of his identity as the child 
of the one whose certificate is furnished. A woman who claims nat- 
uralization through marriage to a citizen of the United States must 
furnish evidence of the husband's citizenship (his certificate being 
required if he is a naturalized citizen) and evidence of her marriage 
to him. 

An application from a foreign-born person claiming citizenship, 
but failing to furnish the required proof, will be cancelled. A dec- 
laration of intention to become a citizen will not be accepted in lieu 
of a certificate of naturalization. When naturalization papers are 
lost a certificate must be procured from the court that issued the 
naturalization papers, showing the facts in the case. 

Persons who have been indicted or convicted of any offense must 
enclose with their application a statement showing the essential facts 
of the case. 

All applications which show the applicants to be ineligible on 
any account will be cancelled and retained in the files of the Board. 
All applications which are defective in their execution and can be 
corrected by the applicant will be returned for correction, but an 
application which has been twice returned for correction and is still 
found to be incomplete will be cancelled. 

Applications which have been approved or cancelled, and all 
examination papers of competitors form a part of the official records 
of the Board, and cannot, under any circumstances, be returned to 
the applicants. 

4. Period of Eligibility. 

The period of eligibility expires January 31st of each calendar 
year. 

5. Eecord of Standing of Competitors. 

A record of standing will be furnished to each person examined, 
whether he passes or fails to pass. 



6. Change of Address. 

Applicants and eligihles must heep the Board informed of any 
change of post-office address. A failure to do so may easily result in 
the loss of an opportunity for appointment. 



mi 



new orleans cril service. 179 

7. Waiver of Certification. 

An eligible may, upon giving to the Board in writing satisfac- 
tory reasons, waive certification without losing his eligibility. 



8. Effect of Declining x\ppointment. 

An eligible who declines an appointment tendered him will not 
again be certified unless he shall request in writing a further certifi- 
cation, stating reasons, which must be satisfactory to the Board for 
declining the appointment. 

No person shall be considered a bona-fide resident of the City 
of New Orleans for one year prior to his employment. 

All the permanent employees of said Board, who are required 
to be appointed after civil service examination, shall be of good 
moral character, and bona-fide residents of the City of New Orleans 
for at least one year prior to their appointment. Said Board shall 
have power, and it shall be its duty, to demand and require bonds 
with good and sufficient surety for the faithful performance of their 
duties from all of its employees who handle money or material, or 
who fill positions of responsibility. 

CIVIL ENGINEERING POSITIONS IN THE OFFICIAL 

SERA^CE. 

Tracers, at salaries less than $600 per annum. 

Positions involving a knowledge of drafting, at salaries of $600 
per annum, or more, and not greater than $1 000 per annum. 

Draftsmen, with salaries of $800 per annum, or more, and not 
more than $1 000 per annum. 

Draftsmen, with salaries of $800 per annum, or more, and not 
more than $1 200 per annum. 

Positions involving a knowledge of topographical drafting, with 
salaries greater than $1 000 per annum. 

Positions involving a knowledge of architectural drafting, with 
salaries greater than $1 000 per annum. 

Levelmen. 

Rodmen. 

Paving Inspectors. 

Superintendent of Architecture, Department of Engineers. 

Chief Inspector Sewerage System. 

Chief Inspector Water Supply System. 

Inspectors Sewerage System. 

Inspectors Water Supply System. 



180 NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 

SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPEKS. 



BUILDING INSPECTOES. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Multiply 3| by 413^. 

2. Eeduce .3125 to 16ths. 

3. Bought a number of barrels of lime and used 84% for mor- 
tar; there are 32 bbls. left. How many barrels were bought^ 

4. Find the square root of 611424. 

5. If sound travels 6 160 ft. in 5 J sec., how far will it travel in 
one minute? 

Practical and Tecpinical. 

1. What is the safe load per square foot on foundations in New 
Orleans ? 

2. Describe the best method of building brick foundations? 

3. (a) What are the best materials to use for concrete, and what 
are the best proportions for same? (h) What is the best method of 
mixing and laying concrete? (Describe how this is done so as to 
insure best results if the materials and proportions are all right.) 

4. What is done to prevent dampness of the ground from rising 
in brick walls and what is the best way to do it ? 

5. Give the names of five (5) of the best high-grade German or 
American Portland cements? 

6. Describe two (2) methods of bonding pressed brick work and 
state which, in your opinion, is best? 

7. Does lumber shrink in length and breadth and thickness, or in 
only one or more of these dimensions? 

8. What is a cantilever beam? 

9. Why is it necessary to use traps to the waste-pipe of plumbing 
fixtures? How are the traps ventilated? 

10. How are the plumbing pipes tested to make sure that they 
are tight ? 

11. How far apart should laths be placed to insure proper keys 
for plastering? 



NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 



181 



12. What number of galvanized iron should be used for an eight 
(8'') inch ogee gutter? 

13. What lap should be given to slates for quarter-pitch roof? 

14. The formula for the ultimate strength of pine beams sup- 
ported at both ends and uniformly loaded is — ^ ; 

R = modulus of rupture = 7 300 lb.; 
h = breadth in inches; 
d =^ depth in inches; 
L ■= length in inches. 

What is the breaking load uniformly distributed on a pine beam 
6 in. by 8 in. by 12 ft. in. vs^hich is supported at both ends ? What 
factor of safety should be used and what is the safe load ? 

15. What should be the thickness of the walls of each story of a 
5-story brick building? 





Spelling. 




Pavilion 


Oriel 


Advisable 


Chargeable 


Collateral 


Parallel 


Forfeit 


Guarantee 


Miscellaneous 


Negotiable 


Promissory 


Recommend 


Birch 


Frieze 


Grotesque 


Sphinx 


Mausoleum 


Interstice 


Astragal 


U nsymmetrically ' 





GENERAL SUPERINTENDENT, PUBLIC WORKS. 
Practical Questions. 

1. What are the duties of the General Superintendent of the 
Public Works Department? 

2. Explain what are done with complaints reaching the Depart- 
ment? 

3. With what tools does the Department furnish its workmen? 

4. What extent of asphalt roadway and contiguous stone pave- 
ments has it been found by experience that one man can keep clean? 

5. What is the price per day of driver, animal and cart ? 

6. What improvement on the present style of carts collecting 
garbage might be proposed for economical and better service? 



182 NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 

7. With the present style of carts removing street pilings, is it 
proper to attempt to remove slush and soft mud at the moment of 
removal from gutters? 

8. What check for proper amount of work for a day's hauling 
should be applied to the work of a cartman? 

9. What new public work now about to be constructed might 
facilitate the removal of gutter pilings from the front of our city ? 

10. Would it be possible to have the pilings sell for about the cost 
of their removal from the gutters and streets ? 

11. How many feet, board measure, in the following : 

7 pes. 6'^ X 8'^ X 18' 

9 " 2'^ X 12'" X 15' 

6 " 3^' X 9'' X 12' 

3 " 3'^ X 4^' X 20' 

5 " 4'^ X 6'^ X 15' 

12. Explain how to obtain the volume or capacity of a cart ? 

13. How many barrelfuls in a pile of lake shells having a volume 
of 1220 cu. ft? 

14. With what kind and size of nails are 3-in. planks fastened ? 

15. How might economy be exercised concerning the present 
method of attendance on the turn-bridges in charge of the Depart- 
ment, and state the possible economy in each instance? 

Letter Writing. 

Write a letter of not less than 150 words concerning the collec- 
tion and disposal of garbage. 

Arithmetic and Mensuration. 

1. Add 

932576418 

4394287 

56431979 

60356 

798795 
40019 

2. Multiply 7896537 

by 8973 

3. Divide 239786509 

by 799 ' 



NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 



183 



4. From -} of | of 2J take § of h- 

5. What is 17% of $2 789? 

6. If three men can lay 4 000 bricks in two days, how many men 
can lay 12 000 in 3 days ? 

7. If the area of a circle whose radius is 1 ft. equals 3.1416 ft., 
what is the area of the circle in square yards whose radius is 5 ft.? 

8. Find the volume in cubic yards of a right cylinder whose end 
area is the answer to the preceding question and having a length 
of 9 ft. 

9. If the cross-section of a level is of the following form and 
dimension, and 105 ft. long, what is its volume in cubic yards? 



10 feet 




30 feet 



10 feet 



20 feet 



10. A triangle A B C oi the following shape has the dimensions 
and other measurements relative thereto as marked in feet. Find 
its area in square feet. 




5 feet 



Wharves 

Barricade 

Supersede 

Rendezvous 

Corrodible 

Fallible 

Nausea 



Spelling. 

Collection 

Asphalt 

Separate 

Metairie 

Discussion 

Grievance 

Querulous 



Recede 

Supervisor 

Balance 

Avidity 

Empirical 

Libelous 



1^^ NEW ORLEANS CTVIh SERVICE. 

AKCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Multiply 74 by 26, 126 4-17. 

2. Reduce .4226 to 15ths. 

3. A man owns § of a property; 35% of his share is worth $1 500. 
What is the value of the property ? 

4. A note was given on August 5, 1902, and was paid on March 
9, 1904. How long did it run? What is the total interest in that 
time at 6% per annum? 

5. What is the square root of 3426201? 

Drawing. 

The applicant shall copy the accompanying blue-print as neatly 
and as accurately as possible. 

The drawing shall be in pencil (not inked). The following title 
shall be placed on the drawing: 

Example of Roman Doric. 

Schedule B 6. No. February 3, 1905. 

Architectural Drafting. New Orleans, La. 

Letters to be in free-hand and in pencil with Capitals 3-16 in. 
high and small letters 7-32 in. high. 

Geometry and Mensuration. 

1. A circular tank measures 6 ft. in diameter, and is 8 ft. 6 in. 
high; bottom of overflow pipe is six in. (6 in.) from top of tank. 

How many pounds of water does the tank contain? 
(One gal. of water weighs 8.35 lb., and there are 7.48 gal. of 
water per cubic foot.) 
(tt =: 3.1416.) 

2. What length of stone coping is required for a gable the width 
of which is 32 ft. and the height f of the span? 

3. What angle does the minute hand of a clock travel in 10 
minutes ? 

4. A hollow circular cast-iron column has an external diameter 
of 8 in. and is required to carry a load of 47 120 lb., and should be 
loaded 4 000 lb. per sq. in. What thickness of the metal ring is 
required ? 

5. If brick masonry can carry 10 tons (of 2 000 lb.) per sq. ft., 
\^hat must be the area of the plate under the same column and rest- 
ing on masonry? 



NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 



185 



Letter Writing. 

Subject: A description of a beautiful building which the appli- 
cant is supposed to have seen, or has seen. 

This letter should contain at least 125 words. 



Spelling. 



Acanthus 

Caryatides 

Gargoyle 

Oorinthian 

Medieval 



Presbytery 

Finial 

Andirons 

Chalice 

Pargeting 



Pilaster 

Stanchion 

Israelite 

Pinnacles 

Cantilever 



Escutcheon 

Crypt 

Quoin 

Triglyph 

Tympanum 



Plain Copy. 

Which will also serve as the Test of Penmanship. 

The mind of man naturally hates everything that looks like a 
restraint upon it, and is apt to fancy itself under a sort of confine- 
ment, when the sight is pent up in a narrow compass, and shortened 
on every side by the neighborhood of walls or mountains. On the 
contrary, a spacious horizon is an image of liberty, where the eye 
has room to range abroad, to expatiate at large on the immensity 
of its views, and to lose itself amidst the variety of objects that offer 
themselves to its observation. - Such wide and undetermined pros- 
pects are pleasing to the fancy, as the speculations of eternity, or 
infinitude, are to the understanding. 





Spelling. 




Accident 


Eorget 


Opposite 


Beggar 


Gamble 


Prepare 


Censure 


Inquire 


Quiet 


Collision 


Incompetent 


Eefer 


Disobedience 


Innocent 


Suspect 


Disperse 
Effect 


Judicial 
Market 


Witness 



CLASS A. SCHEDULE B 8. 

EODMEN. 

The applicant is required to make an identical copy of the fol- 
lowing. Be particular, while so doing, as it is for a test of your 
penmanship and ability to make copies of communications : 

Plain Copy. 

Portland cement is made from artificial mixtures of clay and 
chalk burnt and ground to powder. Natural limestone containing 



186 NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 

the requisite proportions of these ingredients is, however, found and 
used in some localities. The cement derives its name from its sim- 
ilarity, when set, in both hardness and color to Portland stone. It 
is used where no special haste in construction is to be exercised and 
where great strength is required. 

A good quality of Roman cement is made from natural stone 
nodules found in clay of the city of London. It is valuable on 
account of its quick-setting properties, usually becoming hard in 15 
minutes. It is much used for tidal work. Roman cement does not 
admit of storage for long periods. 



Arithmetic. 

1. Add 79.8336; 234.657; 293.52; 7.8; 1937.54 and 837.4327. 

2. Subtract 385.5793 from 395.28. 

3. Multiply 3486.345 by 76.58. 

4. Divide: 47957813.86 by 837.963. 

5. Add § of J X t to 5-1- -- |. 

6. Reduce -| and -g to decimals. 

7. What is 3% of 1 000 ft. ? 

8. How many feet and inches in 25 linlts of a gunthers chain? 

9. What is the difference between 4 sq. ft. and 4 ft. square? 

10. How many granite blocks, 12 in. by 18 in., will be required 
to pave a mile of roadway 42 ft. in width ? 

Mensuration. 

1. How many square yards of pavement in the intersection of two 
sidewalks, one 12 ft. wide and the other 10 ft. wide, less the thick- 
ness of steel concrete curbing which is 6 in. ? 

2. How many superficial square yards 6 in. thick can be made 
from a cubic yard? How many superficial feet 6 in. thick can be 
made from a cubic yard? 

3. A lot is 30 ft. wide by 120 ft. deep and surface is level. If 9 
in. fill is fixed at the front line and 20 in. at the rear line, what is 
the average depth of fill, and how many cubic yards are required to 
fill the lot? 

4. Allow l of the yardage of above for settlement and 2 cu. yds. 
hauled in 3 loads. How many loads will be required to fill the lot so 



NEW ORLEANS CIVIL SERVICE. 



187 



that when ultimate settlement has taken place, the lot will be at 
proper grade? 

5. Find the area of a scalene triangle A, B, C, having the accom- 
panying figure: 




12 feei 



Spelling. 



Hatchet 

Stakes 

Distances 

Weeds 

Bushes 



Level 

Height 

Tedious 

Tenement 

Recreant 



Stall 

Tyranny 

Totally 

Uncivil 

Polite 



Version 

Visible 

Welcome 

Warrant 

Wriggle 



188 



CHICAGO CIVIL SERVICE. 



CHICAGO, ILL. 

CIVIL SEEVICE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FOR 
STRUCTURAL IRON DESIGNERS. 



Oct. 26, 1900. 



Experience. 



State what experience you have had to qualify you for the po- 
sition of structural iron designer. Give dates, names of employers, 
and length of service. 

1. Fig. 1 shows the stress sheet of a 130-ft. span; what will be 
the approximate weight of metal? Indicate method used for ob- 
taining result. 



l\:!^'^*^^4^V^^^'"5^me5frrsse3 dM^Ji^; 







D.L, ^-4e.0O0)'^ P.U. --4e,0O0H5-? Z Side ^ ^7x1'] ZZA^nef- 41?,J^xm 



- --i-xm')'^-^ "^ 



--/?'5'->i 




M Floor Beam 
End Flooi 



PI.5J"4' ^ 
\Boit.Fl.dL^,3^x4xi 



n iWebPI.53xi' 
MSfringers \Boit.FI.?l^,6xd"xl' 



Stringer Cross Frame, ZB3kTxI" Diagonal, 2B,3x4xg Horiz. 
Stringer Bmcing, 11,3x4x1' in lop Fl. only Inivmnediafe. 
5tringer " JL,32x4x^' inlopFl.only E/vi. 



Fig. 1. 



2. Calculate size of pin necessary for the connection shown in 
Fig. 2, assuming that 20 000 lb. per sq. in. are allowed in bending 
and 15 000 lb. per sq. in. in shear. Give details of calculation. 
Graphical method may be used. 



CHICAGO CIVIL SEKVICK. 



189 




302.500) fBars 



Fig. 2 

3. A span of 80 ft. is required to carry street traffic. No limit 
is placed for the depth of the structure. Distance between centers 
of main girders is 24 ft. The pavement is to be cedar block laid on 
4-in. planking, the latter resting directly on the steel floor. As- 
suming a moving load of 100 lb. per sq. ft., design the most econom- 
ical floor, using steel floor beams and steel stringers and straining 
them not more than 12 000, lb. per sq. in. in the extreme fiber. 
Pencil sketches only will be required showing outline, sizes and di- 
mensions. State weight of steel floor per linear foot of bridge. Give 
also the sectional material for the main girders. 

4. An inclined end post, shown in Fig. 3, carries a total stress 
of 440 000 lb. The web is f in. thick, and there is only room for one 
^-in. pin plate or hinge plate on the inside of each web. Assuming 
18 000 lb. per sq. in. to be the permissible limit for bearing on pins, 
Y 500 lb. per sq. in. to be the limit for shear of rivets and 15 000 lb. 
per sq. in. to be the limit for bearing on rivets, calculate the size 
and number of pin plates, the number of |-in. rivets required, and 
show their arrangement for a 6J-in. pin. 



,..| 



m3i>^^'4' 



-dWeb5,E0H' 



^ EB;Jl'x3^'4' 



Fig. 3. 



190 



CHICAGO CIVIL SERVICE. 



5. Do you consider a stiff or an adjustable lateral system as 
preferable for bridges? State your reasons. 

6. A column fixed at the base is to carry a fixed load of 100 
tons applied centrally and 10 tons applied eccentrically, 2 ft. from 
the center at top. Height of column, 40 ft. May be built of chan- 
nels, Z-bars or plates and angles. Calculate column by any stand- 
ard formula and give sketch of section with sizes and dimensions; 
also details of calculation and reasons for adopting the form of 
section. 

7. What size and shape lattice bars would you use for a com- 
pression member built of 2 webs 30 by | in. and 4 angles 6 by 6 by 
I in., distance back to back of angles being 20 in. ? 

8. Describe, without going into details, how you would design 
the following structure: A 200-ft. highway span over railway 
track with viaduct approaches, as shown in Fig. 4. Bed rock, 6 ft. 
below surface of ground. The headroom over tracks to be 20 ft. 
under 200-ft. span. Top of floor to base of rail not to exceed 23 ft. 
No limitation as to headroom under approaches. Koadway to be 
40 ft. wide in the clear between curbs, with two 6-ft. sidewalks. 
Indicate in writing the principal characteristics of each portion of 
the structure, such as length of spans, columns, girders, floor, brac- 
ing, etc., assuming that the highest class of structure is required. 



TopofFloor^ _v ^ 

Af __— — --^ — "i ^^S — ^^~T^~—~.^^ 

^- — '"' I § Level \6round 



•< -WO >f Bed Rock 

Fig. 4. 



9. What is the relation between the deflection of a beam of 
equal resistance, or one which has a constant extreme fiber strain 
throughout its length, and the deflection of a beam of constant mo- 
ment of inertia, all other conditions being equal? 

10. Being given a continuous beam of 3 equidistant supports 
uniformly loaded, what is the end reaction expressed in terms of the 
total load? 

The applicants may use a Carnegie "Pocket Companion" for 
reference in answering the above questions. 



CHICAGO CIVIL SERVICE. 191 

CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATION FOR STRUCTURAL-IRON 
DESIGNERS AT CHICAGO. 

January 1st, 1903. 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
Mathematics. 

1. What would be the weight of a solid column 10 ft. long and 9 
in. diameter if made of (a) cast iron; (h) wrought iron; (c) steel? 

2. What should be the area in cross-section of a steel strut 1 ft. 
long that is to carry a load of 10 tons with a factor of safety of 4? 

3. How many feet B. M. (a) in a floor 10 ft. wide by 120 ft. 
long made of 3-in. oak planks; (h) in an oak timber 6 by 14 in. and 
18. ft. long? 

4. What should be the diameter of a wrought-iron rod which is 
to stand a tensile strain of 7 000 lb. with a factor of safety of 7 ? 

5. What is the moment of inertia of a box girder 7 in. square 
outside measurement and made of metal i in. thick? 

Duties. 

1. In braced portal, Fig. 1, find reactions and strains in rods. 

2. In plate girder, Fig. 2, find spacing of rivets for a distance 
of 4 ft. from end "A" ; also spacing of rivets between points X and 
Y. Allow 3 500 lb. bearing and 3 000 lb. for single shear per rivet. 

3. In pony truss. Fig. 3, find maxi'mum strain in members 1-3 
and 1-4 for loads, as per diagram, moving over bridge. 

4. In the same pony truss, what are the strains in members 
3-4, 5-6, 3-6 and 5-4 for a panel dead load of 5 000 lb. when both 
diagonals are stiff members. 

5. Find maximum bending moment on pins shown in Fig. 4. 

6. In section shown in Fig. 5, find the radius of gyration around 
axis X-X; correct to two decimals. 

7. Find section modulus "S" of section shown in Fig. 5. 

8. In sidewalk bracket, Fig. 6, find the strain in member A-B. 

9. Find the number of rivets required for member A-B in side- 
walk bracket, Fig. 6. Member composed of two angles. Allow 
3 500 lb. bearing and 3 000 lb. for single shear per rivet. 

10. Find deflection at center of beam shown in Fig. 7. 

Note. — Figure numbers refer to diagrams which were furnished 
to candidates. 



ni 



' 182 chicago civil service. " 

January 21st, 1904. 

AJSr EXAMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR CHIEF SANI- 
TARY INSPECTOR OF CHICAGO 

was held in that city on January 13th. Some of the questions on 
general sanitation and hygiene were as follows: 

Explain the germ theory of disease in its modern aspects. 

What are the most prevalent diseases in cities and by what sani- 
tary measures can they be most effectively combated ? 

What is the latest opinion concerning the dangers to health from 
leaky plumbing and broken drains? 

What are the dangers of poisoning from small quantities of il- 
luminating gas? 

Why is it important to secure the drainage of wet places and 
the removal of stagnant water about dwellings ? 

What role do insects, such as flies and mosquitoes, play in the 
transmission of infection? 

How does defective tenement-house construction facilitate the 
spread and maintenance of infection? 

What is the scope of work of a sanitary bureau, and what is it 
intended to accomplish? 

Wliat measures, in your opinion, are most likely to aid in im- 
proving the sanitation of a large modern city? 

What, precisely, do you understand by the term "cleanness,'^ as 
applied, for example, to streets and alleys, to schoolhouses and other 
public buildings and to the ordinary dwelling-house? 



(Tu781.) 



